little scientist

SELF EVALUATION UNIT IV

2008-12-08T11:37:00.001-08:00

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of? The three aspects of this assignment that I am most proud of are the human evolution portion, the lab for the events of embryo development and the chapter regarding human population.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? The thing I think I could have improved on is the posting pictures because some got cut off and then there was the ones that I thought were one thing and they posted as another.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? Again, I think the overall grade should reflect my work and I believe that I put a lot time and effort into all my work.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? Ahhh, no other unit to do!! All of the units were a challenge.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course? I felt most engaged with the reproduction part of this unit. Even though you as an individual think you know your body; you learn something new.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? I wasn't really interested in the evolution, but to my surprise it was very interesting.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful? I was frustrated with the demographic lab, but you helped by answering my emails!!! Also, a student took the time to answer on ning.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? I didn't find anything puzzling or confusing.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs When I was having a problem with the simulator, I was so happy that I finally figured out what was happening and finished the lab for the unit!!!

ETHICAL ISSUE UNIT IV HUMAN CONSUMPTION & FERTILITY

2008-12-08T11:11:00.001-08:00

mrbarlow.wordpress.com

The article for this assignment was enlightening. I don't think people actually "think" about how we as individuals consume energy. I really never thought of it that way. Also, our energy consumption in contrast to fertility. I guess you could say the more production of humans involves more energy consumption. When I think of third world countries, I think of their fertility rate because in some countries it is out of control.

www.nextdaysite.net

These images of the children above are scary. I think that some third world countries need education for birth control. Even though, in the article for this assignment stated that Americans are the biggest energy consumers, there is something to be said for these countries because they don't have the resources to feed the children. I think this whole thing about energy consumption and how it is being used is a viscous cycle. There are thousands suffering. There are a lot of proposals coming out on how we need to conserve, go green, and make better choices. Is it too late??!! I don't think so. I think that we can pitch in and try and do our best to conserve energy. The article for this assignment was a lot more in depth, but when I think of energy conservation I think of ways I, my self and my family can do our part. I think that is where it has to start. Each person doing their own thing to conserve. As for the third world countries and the less fortunate, they need education on how things work; how they as individuals consume energy. I think education is key to energy conservation! I am sure that there is no "one" real solution, but one at a time, these solutions can be tested and maybe even perfected.

www.reliant.com

The human population, on a molecular level, consume energy?!!! Surprising, because we are made up of chemicals; these chemicals interact with other chemicals. Another amazing piece of information. I really think we, as a country are moving in the right direction when it comes to resolve for poor energy use and fertility. Nothing happens over night, but in time things will change little by little and every little bit makes a difference.

HUMAN POPULATION DEMOGRAPHIC LAB

2008-12-08T08:36:00.001-08:00

HUMAN POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS LAB WRITE-UP
This is the simulator you'll use for your lab write-up. It's a simple, but very powerful, way to see how population change depends on current population age distribution, along with reproductive and death rates. Your book also has a very good section on demographics.
The key to using the simulator is to open the "Options" button for each population comparison box. Select the first pull-down option under "Options" "Select Region/Country for Simulation." This will open a world map where you can select a particular country or region of the world and see its current population structure and then simulate its future population growth based on current statistics. PLEASE DO THE FOLLOWING:
1. Choose the entire World for the upper simulation. Run the simulation out to the year 2050 (as far as it goes).
2. Now choose a country for the lower simulation that has a much lower fertility rate than the entire world. Note if the initial population structure is different, and how. Then run the simulation out to year 2050.
3. Grab this screen shot and save it to post to your blog.
4. Repeat the same steps, but for a region or country with a much higher fertility rate than the entire world.
FOR YOUR WRITE-UP:
Post the two screen shots: one should have the world simulation compared with a lower fertility rate country or region; one should have the world simulation compared with a higher fertility rate country or region.
Answer the following questions:
1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

I choose Afghanistan with the high fertility of 6.4.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

I choose Taiwan for the low fertility. It shows that it on the decline. The fertility number was 1.8.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth? It does show the decline of the older population. Maybe in this particular country people can not seek health care because they can not afford it. Also, on the up swing of that the younger population is growing because of no birth control.
4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people. I believe this leads to higher middle aged people because it could be due to malnutrition of the children, no proper prenatal care, and poverty.
5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population. I think a lot of areas are becoming just middle aged or elderly because of retirement places to live. The way the economy is going I believe less people are having children and the area you live in does make a difference. Some people may be living in poverty while others are just making ends meet. I think Prescott, Arizona is a retirement community because of the mild winters. This will lead to higher elderly and less children. When people are raising children they want to live in a community that has children their kids age. Its an interesting world we live in and is amazing how the countries differ in population.
To get full credit for this lab (20 points), you just have to post the two screen shots and answer all the questions.

LAB PROJECT UNIT IV: LIST OF SPECIES

2008-12-01T11:59:00.001-08:00

I see quite a few coyotes around my house. Their scientific name is canis latrans. The native Americans call them littlewolf. They are part of the dog family. I would think that they are predator because they have to hunt for food. I also think that some people make them domesticated if they are raised by humans. They are also carnivores because they eat meat. I watch them from my back porch while they are hunting, probably for rabbits.

The rock squirrels are usually found in the west. Their scientific name is spermophilus variegatus. I think they are mutualistic. They benefit from their surroundings. I put out seed for the birds and they pocket the seeds for the winter. I don't think these animals are domesticated, but some people may try and feed them and they might become relaxed and except the offerings.

The roadrunner is an interesting species. I get a few of these on my back porch sometimes. Their scientific name is Geococcyx californianus. They are predators because they have to hunt for their food. They eat beetles, grasshoppers and ants. You may also see roadrunners in a zoo and there they eat mice, bees and insects. They are domestic, but if they are in the zoo they are somewhat domesticated because people are required to feed them.

www.suddenrx.com

The tarantula is in the spider family. Their scientific name is Aphonopelma species. I think they are predator and mutualistic. A predator because they hunt their prey and mutualistic because the help the insect population around my house. I seen a few of these and while they are fascinating, I keep my distance. Some people have these as pets, so they are domesticated, but not like a dog or a cat.

www.nature.com

This is a picture of bacteria in the human mouth. There are thousands of different species and this bacteria helps us break down food and others cause cavities. One type is (scientific name) Streptococcus mutans and these cause cavities. I would consider them commensal. They are domesticated because they have a purpose and no one needs to train them.

upload.wikimedia.org

This is a honey bee (common name). Their scientific name is Apis mellifera Linnaeus. These are mutualistic because we as humans benefit from them because the pollinate and they benefit be varies flowers. Yes, I think the honey bees are domesticated because people raise colonies of bees. They don't necessarily live with humans, but they have a close relationship. Best of all they produce honey.

Parsley is one of the best around. I always have a batch of this in my garden. The scientific name for parsley Petroselinum crispum. I think they are commensal because I benefit from growing it. Yes, parsley is domesticated because we can grow a lot of it and sell or make breads or different foods from it.

www.bojack.org

This is a plum tree. I have one of these in my front yard. The scientific name is Prunus Americana. I think this species is mutualistic because it provides shade, food for birds and humans. Yes, these are domesticated because a lot of them are grown commercially, besides in someone's yard.

www.cse.ucsd.edu

This is a quail and they are abundant in the west! I have daily visitors around my bird feeders, usually in the late afternoon. The scientific name is Colinus virginianus. The common name is quail, but the also have another common name; bobwhite. They are mutualistic because some people hunt quail. I heard that they taste good, but I have never tried them. They can be domesticated because some people raise them.

This is a German spitz puppy. The scientific name is canis famililaris. Soooooo cute!! I got one when he was just 5 weeks old. They are symbiotic because we share a relationship with them. They protect us and we provide a comfortable home for them. They are also domesticated because we train them to do certain things in order to stay in the house. A lot of dogs were hunter back in the day.

www.edupic.net

This is a curve-billed thrasher. Daily visitor to my feeders and the bird baths. The scientific name is Toxostoma curvirostre. They are commensal or they could be mutualistic, but I just benefit from watching them. They are not a domesticated species.

This is a scorpion and I believe everyone in Arizona have these little creatures in their homes. Their scientific name is Superstitionia donensis. They could be symbiotic because they keep the grasshoppers away. I had a ton of grasshoppers on my back porch this summer and it was annoying. On the other hand they are commensal because they are making their way into my house now that the cold weather has arrived. Not domesticated, but I believe that some people make little aquariums for them.

www.catpage.us

This is a bob cat and we have a whole family living in this area. We may not see them daily, but we do see them often. Their scientific name is Felis rufus. They are definitely a predator because they hunt to live. Some people make them domesticated, but it is illegal in most states. Maybe even all states, but not a smart idea.

www.insidesocal.com

Yes, this is a cow. They graze in the fields in front of my house. Their scientific name is Bos taurus. There are a lot of different species of cows. They are symbiotic because we benefit from them worldwide! We set them in fields and they get to eat all day long! They are domesticated because we use them to produce milk and cheese.

www.swish-uk.com

This is a rabbit and they can be domesticated because a lot of people have them as pets. Their scientific name is Oryctolagus cunicuius. They can be symbiotic because we save them from becoming prey and we get a cool pet. The ones that are not domesticated like to eat stuff out of my gardens.

www.snakeeducation.com

Ahhh, the diamond back rattle snake. We have had many on our back porch.!!! Their scientific name is Crotalus atrox. They are predator's because they hunt their prey. They can also bite people and small animals. They can be domesticated, but I wouldn't want one!! They keep the rodents population down.

These are my buddies! The house finches. The one on the right is the female and the one on the left is male. They are a riot to watch. Their scientific name is Carpodacus mexicanus. These can be domesticated because a lot of people have them caged inside the their homes. I just see them everyday at my window feeder. They are commensal because they benefit be the feeders that I have outside. Otherwise, people that keep them as pets I guess that would be mutualistic.

www.tastyisland.net

I love mushrooms!! Their scientific name is Agaricus bisporus. The are domesticated because we can purchase them in a store, but they also grow in the wild. Some species can be deadly. I think they are commensal. Not really sure on this one! They grow very fast in the dark! They also feed off of decaying organisms.

This is Russian sage. A flowering bush. I have two of these plants. Their scientific name is Perovskia atripicfolia. The are mutualistic because the bees love this plant so they pollinate and I benefit for cut flowers. They are a domesticated species because they are grown in nursery's for people to buy and take home and plant in their yards.

www.dphotojournal.com

This an ant and we found them in our bathroom. This picture is a great magnification on the one that I saw. Their scientific name is Monomorium pharaonis. There are several species, but this particular species likes warm moist areas and I found them in my bathroom. Ants are actually predator's believe it or not. They are workers and those workers need food. They work together sometimes to get their prey. They are not domesticated, but they would like to be. Maybe some species are, but I don't think they are.

The species that I choose to do this lab project have co-existed with us for a long period of time. Some of the species are out of site; out of mind. The flowers, birds, and dog are part of my daily life, but the others I see a lot and don't interact with them. It is fascinating to see the bob cats and coyotes in my back yard; that is one thing I would never see in RI.

COMPENDIUM IV HUMAN EVOLUTION & ECOLOGY, GLOBAL ECOLOGY, HUMAN POPULATION

2008-11-30T13:14:00.001-08:00

WWW.chnm.gmu.edu

HUMAN EVOLUTION & ECOLOGY

a. origin of life

b. biological evolution/natural selection

c. classifications of humans/primates

d. evolution of humans

I want to start with a definition of evolution. Evolution is the descent of organisms from common ancestors with the development of genetic and phenotypic changes over time that make them more suited to the environment. Wow, what a definition, but it makes sense. We all come from somewhere and with a certain ancestor history. Think way back when dinosaurs were roaming the earth instead of humans. What ancestors did they have? Who are our ancestors? In the book they start with the origin of life and that all life consists of cells coming from preexisting cells, but how did the first cell come about? Great question! It is said that the earth along with the sun and planets were created millions of year ago from dust particles and debris. It is said that the earth's mass is a gravitational field is strong enough to have an atmosphere. Atmosphere is gaseous envelop surrounding the earth; the air. If there were less mass the atmospheric gases would escape into outer space. Obviously the atmosphere millions of years ago was much different then it is today. The atmosphere back then was formed by gases from volcanoes. If that was the case then the atmosphere had water vapor that consisted of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. There was very little oxygen in the atmosphere. Because of the rain the volcanic molecules washed into the oceans. Primitive earth had many sources of energy besides volcanoes there were meteorites, radioactive isotopes, lightening and ultraviolet radiation. All these energy may have mixed together and reacted with one another and produced small organic compounds, such as nucleotides and amino acids. Scientists have conducted experiments with gases from the earth's atmosphere and when heated and circulated it past an electric spark. When this stuff cooled it was discovered that there was a variety of organic molecules. These organic molecules joined to become macromolecules, which is larger molecules. There were two hypothesis concerning the macromolecules in the origin of life. First there was the RNA-first hypothesis, which suggests that only the macromolecule needed at this time to progress toward formation of the first cells. The hypothesis went on to prove that RNA could be either a substrate or an enzyme during RNA processing. RNA enzymes are known as ribosome's, which produce protein synthesis and are composed of ribosomal RNA. It was thought that RNA could carry out what DNA does today. The second hypothesis is the protein-first hypothesis. With this hypothesis it showed that amino acids join together when exposed to heat. A scientist thought that the amino acids on rocky shores, when heated by the sun caused them to form proteinoids, which are small polypeptides that have some catalytic properties. If the proteinoids return to water they form microspheres which are structures composed only of proteins that have many of the properties of a cell. The protocell, in biological evolution, is a possible cell forerunner that became a cell once it could reproduce. A cell has a lipid protein membrane and if the lipid and microspheres came together it could possibly produce the lipid protein membrane. A true cell is one that can reproduce. The true cell is what we think of in today's cell, with the DNA replication before cell division. This is a picture of a cell as we know it..........

www.animalport.com

I guess in order to become a true cell (one that reproduces) scientists needed to do some research. This comes back to the RNA-first hypothesis and the proposed steps. With this hypothesis the first cell had RNA genes that, similar to the messenger RNA ,could have specified protein synthesis. Some of the proteins were enzymes and maybe one of these enzymes like; reverse transcriptase could use RNA as a template to make DNA. Replication of DNA would then take place normally, like we know it. But the other hypothesis; protein-first, suggested that some of the proteins in the protocell would have evolved the enzymatic ability to synthesize DNA from nucleotides in the ocean. Then the DNA would have gone on to specify protein synthesis, and in this way, the cell could have acquired all its enzymes even the ones that replicate DNA.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

It was believed that the first true cell was the prokaryotic cell because they lacked a nucleus and most organelles. Then eukaryotic cells evolved and they do contain a nucleus. Also, there were other multicellular and other kingdoms that evolved such as; fungi, plants and animals. Biological evolution is the processes by which a species changes through time. This is a great example of how we as humans evolved and where we came from. There are two important aspects of biological evolution and one of those is common ancestor and secondly, is adaptation to an environment. Our descent relates to our common chemistry and cellular structure. Adaptation relates to being able to survive and reproduce in a different environment form your own. Humans are great at adaptation because we can move around and adapt to almost anywhere. Adaptation also helps explain the diversity of life and why there are so many different types of living things. Charles Darwin is basically the founder of evolution. He traveled extensively through the tropics where life-forms are more abundant then in other areas. He discovered that life forms change over time and from place to place. The first discovery were fossils, Fossils are evidence of an organism that has been preserved in the earth's crest or through sediment over a long period of time. It is said that fossils are the greatest evidence that there was life millions of years ago. This evidence includes footprints, burrows, trails and even preserved droppings. There are also bone fossils, like the bones of dinosaurs. Some fossils can be imprints of plants from long ago and even insects imprinted in trees from getting caught in the resin. Most fossils though are found in rock because of the sediment changing over time. Weather plays a key roll in sediment because of the rain washing things away or water rising can cause sediment. Darwin showed evidence of common descent through the hypothesis. The explanation for anatomical similarities among organisms. One example is a bird and a bat that have similar structure in their vertebrate forelimbs used for flight. Another example is whales and seals for swimming. A horse for running.

www.colorado.edu

In this picture you can see the similarities in the bones structure and function. Structures that are anatomically similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor are called homologous structures. Analogous structures serve the same function, but they are not constructed the same and they don't have a common ancestor. There are also vestigial structures and these are anatomical features that are fully developed in on group of organisms, but are reduced and may have no function in similar groups. An example of this is the whale and they have a vestigial pelvic girdle and legs, but their ancestors walked on land. Whales swim! Another example could be birds because some birds have wings for flight and others have wings that don't fly. Biochemical evidence shows that almost all living organisms share the same molecular structures. Scientists have done extensive research on DNA, not only on humans, different species and they found that humans share a large of genes with similar organisms.

NATURAL SELECTION

Natural selection is the mechanism resulting in adaptation to the environment. Darwin, again, discovered natural selection while he spent time in the Galapagos Island and studied finches that resembled on another but had different ways of life. He discovered that some of the finches were ground seed feeders, insect feeders, and ground cactus eaters. Because of these differences Darwin believed that these finches were all descended from a mainland ancestor whose offspring had spread out to other islands and adapted to the different environments. Another naturalist, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck had an explanation why giraffes long neck were based on the assumptions that the ancestors of modern giraffe were trying to reach into the trees to browse on high growing vegetation and that continual stretching of the neck made the giraffes neck to become longer. Then this characteristic was passed to the next generation. Lammarck's theory for this characteristic would not work because characteristics are not inherited. Here is a picture of the giraffe that Lammarck was referring to.

www.img.sparknotes.com

There are three critical elements of natural selection; (1) variation: this is when members of a species have similar physical characteristics and these can be passed from generation to generation. (2) competition for limited resources; each individual could produce many descendents, the number in each generation usually stays the same. This is because resources are limited and competition for resources results in unequal reproduction among the population. (3) adaptation is when the population has advantageous traits can capture more resources and are more likely to reproduce and pass their traits and the environment "selects" for the better adapted traits. Besides birds and Darwin humans have a great natural selection because we adapt easily to different environments. Maybe not in other countries; it may take a little longer to adapt, but it would happen. Here is a description of the classifications and evolution of humans; one that is not listed and what human are and is the domain -eukaryotic and is membrane bound nucleus.

www.teara.govt.nz

Humans are primates. Primates have mobile limbs, grasping hands, flattened face, binocular vision, large brains, and a reduced reproductive rate. There are two suborders to primates. One is prosimians and this includes the lemurs, tarsiers and lories. The second is the anthropoids and this includes monkeys, apes, and humans. We know that humans are closely related to monkeys and apes.

EVOLUTION OF HUMANS/HOMINIDS

www.daviddarling.info/images/primate

This picture represents the family tree of primates and how humans have evolved. Hominids is a term that refers to the branch of the evolutionary tree that you see above. Any fossil that is placed in the hominid tree of descent is closer to human than to on of the African apes. the features of a hominid determined by the paleontologists who dig for fossils in remote areas. One of the features is bipedal posture, which refers to walking on two feet. Some of the hominid even lived in trees. These hominids may have have four limbs, but they only used the hind legs to walk. Two other important features of hominids are the face and the brain size. Humans today have a more flattened face as where the chimpanzees it is more pronounced. The brain size of humans is also larger then the chimpanzees. Here is a picture of human evolution that explains the different species; these are more modern human evolution.

Fossils are assigned to HOMO if (1) the brain size is 600cm3 or greater (2) the jaw and teeth resemble those of humans and (3)tool use is evident. Early homos date back to 2.0 and 1.9 millions of years ago and may be ancestral to modern humans. They have found fossils with brain that are as large as 775 cm3. They also say that the early homos are members of the omnivores, who ate meat and plants. Another example of homos class is the homo erectus and these are usually found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Eugene Dubois was the first to find H. erectus bones in Java in 1891 and since his discovery there have been many more found in the same area. There is a similar species found in Asia called the H. ergaster and these species had a very large brain and a protruding nose, in which it says that the nose protruded because these species lived in hot climates and permits water to be removed before air leaves the body. Our species is considered homo sapiens and it is believed that we evolved from homo erectus, but differ as to the details. It is also believed that homo sapiens evolved in a multitude of areas and this is just a hypothesis. The neandertals (H. meandertalensis) had a huge brow ridges, and their nose, jaw, and teeth protrude far forward. You can see those features in the picture above. The neanderthal also had a slightly larger brain then homo sapiens and the were larger in the shoulder and chest area. It was believed (hypothesized)that their brains were larger to deal with the extra muscular structure. They lived in caves or may have built homes, but for the most part they lived in caves. They made homemade tools out of stone, including spears points. The neanderthals probably ate bears, wooly mammoths (look like elephants), and reindeer. They made fire to cook these catches and to keep themselves warm. Next, is the cro-magnons and these are the oldest fossils to be designated homo sapiens. These fossils were discovered in France. The cro-magnon also made tools out of stone; spears that they could throw from a distance to kill their prey and not be hurt. It is believed they were the first to do spear hunting. They were accomplished hunters who may be responsible for some extinction of certain large mammals. They also use to draw art on the cave walls using reindeer antlers and bones.

GLOBAL ECOLOGY

a. ecosystems

b. energy flow

c. water cycle

d. carbon cycle

e. nitrogen cycle

f. phosphate cycle

Ecosystems differ in that there are different kinds. There is aquatic or terrestrial just for an example. An ecosystem is defined as a biological community together with the associated abiotic environment characterized by energy flow and chemical cycling. Also, an ecosystem can vary in size, from the Sahara desert to a puddle, ecosystems are dynamic interactions between plants, animals and micro organisms and their environment working together as a whole. If ecosystems do not remain in balance then it is likely that they will fail. the terrestrial ecosystems is also known as the biomes. Temperature and rainfall define the biomes and these areas contain communities of organisms and they are adapted to the climate. There are many biomes; the rain forest is a great example because of all the lush tropical trees and a variety of organisms.

www.puertogalera.rainforest.googlepages.com

This is a picture of the rain forest. Another example of an ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem and this deals mainly with water. This could be the ocean floor to a river in Rhode Island. There are two components that are involved in an ecosystem and one is the abiotic component that are nonliving and the biotic component that are living things that can be categorized according to their food source. Also there are different populations or species one is autotrophs which require inorganic nutrients and outside energy source to produce organic nutrients for their own use. They are also considered producers because they produce food. Another population is heterotrophs and they need organic nutrients and they are considered consumers because they "consume" food. Herbivores are animals that eat only vegetation like plants or algae. Insects are considered herbivores in the rain forest. Carnivores eat other animals like birds or a hawk that eats rabbits is a good example. Then there are omnivores which feed on animals and plants and a great example of an omnivores is humans.

ENERGY FLOW....................

www.bcgrasslands.org

This picture represents how the energy flows through an ecosystem. There is also chemical cycling. The sun starts the process of energy flow. The producers absorb the solar energy and chemical cycling begins when the producers take in the inorganic nutrients from the physical environment. Then through photosynthesis the producers make organic nutrients (food) for themselves and for the other populations of the ecosystem. The energy flow occurs because as the nutrients pass from one population to another all the energy is converted to heat and then dissipates into the environment. All the autotrophs,heterotrophs, carnivores, and others benefit from the energy flow within an ecosystem.

THE WATER CYCLE

www.carrier.pbwiki.com

This picture represents the water cycle within an ecosystem. With evaporation, the suns heat makes the freshwater to evaporate. Within the ocean the freshwater evaporates and leaves behind extra salt. During condensation a gas is changed to a liquid. the freshwater that has evaporated will then vaporize and from the vaporization the freshwater rises into the atmosphere, condenses and falls as precipitation (rain,snow). Land is above sea level, so when it does precipitate the runoff will flow back into the ocean and lakes. Some of the precipitation penetrates into the ground and this is called the water table or ground water table.

THE CARBON CYCLE

WWW.ecosys.cfl.scf.rncan.gc

This picture represents the carbon cycle with an ecosystem. The terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are involved in the carbon cycle. There is exchange of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere; on land plants take up the carbon dioxide from the air, and through photosynthesis and then they incorporate carbon into nutrients that are used by autotrophs and heterotrophs. In the aquatic ecosystem the carbon dioxide is an indirect exchange. The carbon dioxide mixes with the air to produce bicarbonate ion which is a source of carbon for algae that produce food for themselves and for heterotrophs. Living and dead organisms contain organic carbon and serve as one of the reservoirs for the carbon cycle. There is also transfer of carbon with our cellular respiration (breathing), and photsynthesis and includes the work of decomposers. With the carbon exchange this also produces green houses gases and global warming! This is a major concern for our planet. By trying to reduce these gases we all can help save the planet for the future. Everyone is "going green"!!! The global warming is due to human activities and how we treat our plant and if everyone does their part we can prolong this.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

www.scienceprogress.org

This picture represent the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is also a gas that is exchanged with the atmosphere. Nitrogen can cause limited growth within plants. In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation occurs and produces ammonium and the plants can use this form of nitrogen. Plants can also use nitrates which is another form of nitrogen. The change of the nitrogen into nitrates is called nitrification. Human activities also change the transfer rate in the nitrogen cycle by producing fertilizers. Fertilizer contains phosphate and the runoff into lakes and rivers can result in an overgrowth of algae and aquatic plants. This overgrowth can lead to an algal boom and with this when the algae finally die off the decomposers use up all the oxygen in the lake or river and this kills all the fish.

THE PHOSPHATE CYCLE

WWW.filebox.vt.edu

This picture represents the phosphate cycle. With the phosphate cycle, if the oceans sediment is up heavaled the phosphate is released. When on land the phosphate transfers into the soil and becomes available to plants. If the plants do not get phosphate it is hard for them to reproduce and it makes the population low within the ecosystem. The phosphate that is on land can runoff into the aquatic ecosystem and the algae takes it up before it is transferred to the sediment.

HUMAN POPULATION

a. mdc's versus ldc's

b. human use of resources and pollution

c. biodiversity

www.census.gov

We all know that our population is constantly on the rise. The growth rate is determined by the number of births and the number of deaths per year. The birth rate is higher then the death rate. People are living longer these days, with all the advance technology. The country can be divided into two groups. One is the MDC's (more developed countries) and LDC (less-developed countries). The MDC's have a modest growth rate and have a good standard of living. The LDC's which can include Asia, Africa and Latin America are those in which the population growth is dramatic and the majority of people live in poverty. The MDC's having a steady rate growth changed in 1850 thru 1950 because of the death rate decreased due to the discovery of modern medicines. The LDC's death rate also began to decline due to modern medicine, but the birth rate stayed high. People in the LDC lack proper birth control because most cannot afford the prescribed contraceptives or don't take the proper precautions. The LDC population will jump from 5 million to 8 million and some of this increase will be in Africa, but most will be in Asia because of the AIDS that has spread through Africa making the death rate very high.

HUMANS USE OF RESOURCES AND POLLUTION

There are many factors of resources that humans use in order to survive. As for pollution, humans using cars for transportation and factories releasing gases are polluting the earth. There are solutions for these problems, but people have to change their way living. We can drive more efficient cars, ride a bike, or take the bus to work. Some people even car pool. Its all about choice and wanting to keep our planet!! The four resources that humans are using are land, water, food, energy and minerals. Land is obviously used for a place to live. Farmers use land to grow their crops, power plants, highways for transport, hospitals. and the list goes on and on. As the population grows, so does the need for more of the things that I just mentioned. Beaches are a great example of where people are building their houses. These houses are in jeopardy because of all the beach erosion and terrible storms along the coast. It also effects the habitat for marine organisms.

www.calstatela.edu

Another place that is effected by humans is the rainforest. They are cutting down the trees!!! The soil in the rainforest is thin and nutrient poor because all of the nutrients are taken up by the forest itself. If the trees are taken and the land used for agriculture it loses its fertility and becomes subject to desertification (the conversion of semiarid land to desert like conditions). This picture below is a great example of desertification...........

www.giftedkidsnetwork.com

As you can see these fish lost their natural habitat due to desertification. Water is another resources that humans abuse. Worldwide, 70% of the water supply is used to irrigate crops. But we need crops for food. This is a vicious cycle and we need solutions! The MDC's use the most water and it is used for bathing, flushing toilets, and water lawns instead of drinking and cooking. I think that should be the opposite, but the MDC's are domesticated and it goes through generation to generation. Modern conveniences is what the problem is. To help with increase demand of water we have created dams. Dams are controlling the water in reservoirs or aquifers. Ground water is also a factor when it comes to water. Some states have severe droughts and these droughts can ruin crops. The aquifers hold rainwater and this accumulates. The ground water is depleting and has become a problem in many areas of the world. One example is the high plain aquifer, which stretches from South Dakota to the Texas panhandle and more then half the water has already been pumped out. Food is a resource that we as humans cannot live without! We could eat more vegetables instead of meat. We get our food from three main sources; crops, raising animals, and fishing. These three resources are on the rise as population grows. With producing crops, some of the chemicals they use can be harmful and they use a generous amount of irrigation. If all the people that produce crops were organic that would be one resolve for the chemicals. The chemicals they use can also ruin the soil that they are planting in. Another solution is intercropping, which is planting two or more different crops in the same area. An example is planting alfalfa between strips of corn. The alfalfa replenishes the nitrogen content of the soil so that fertilizer doesn't have to be added. What a great solution; why isn't everyone doing this??!!! With livestock, these animals start out eating natural stuff and then they are stuffed in feedlots and feed grain, while being pumped with growth hormones and antibiotics. This is outraging! By placing these animals so tightly packed in feedlots contamination can occur, besides other things. Now onto energy! Here is where we could save a lot. Humans surely abuse energy. There are a lot of new alternatives that people are coming up with to save energy. One example is the hydropower. They have created hydroelectric plants that convert the energy of falling water into electricity. Here is a little picture that shows how this energy is produced.............................

www.earthsci.org

We also have the Hoover Dam which is not that far away from where I live in Arizona.

www.aboutmyplanet.com

Another way energy is being produced is the wind power. These are becoming very popular. It was thought that they would use a lot of land but compared to the coal-fired power plants the wind power is much more favorable.

www.fluorescentefficiency.com

This is a picture of what is used for the wind power. These turn wind into energy!! Kind of amazing if you think about it. Communities could generate their own electricity by using these and solve the problem of uneven energy production by selling electricity to a local public utility when an excess is available and buying when the wind power is in short supply.

BIODIVERSITY

www.environment.go.ke

Biodiversity can be defined as the variety of life on earth. This picture is just a small portion of what is on earth. There are major causes of biodiversity loss and extinction. Humans, again have a hand in the habitat loss in biodiversity. Due to the increase in houses across the coastline, cutting down trees in the rainforest, and semiarid lands being destroyed. One major concern is the rain forest and the coral reefs in the ocean because these area are abundant in different species. The coral reefs are explored by thousand of tourist that contribute to the destruction. They say that there may be no more coral reefs in another forty years. There are also alien species that humans are creating and bringing into certain areas that really don't produce them. Some alien species can become invasive, meaning that they take over the native plants to the area. Pollution is a major concern to the biodiversity because it brings about environmental change that adversely affects the lives and health of living things. Biodiversity is mainly affected with the acid deposition which decimates forest because it causes trees to weaken and increases their susceptibility to disease and insects. Another form is global warming. This term, global warming" is becoming more and more common because people are trying to save our plant from this fast growing melt down. This is a increase in the earth's temperature due to the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and it has many detrimental effects.

www.aolcdn.com

This picture represents the greenhouse gases that are being released into our atmosphere. There are also coastal effects. The polar bears are in great danger of losing their habitat due to global warming.

www.alaska-in-pictures.com

Obviously, this polar bear should be standing on ice, not bare land. Overexploitation is a concern for any species that are unique. Humans hunt certain animals for their coat and if these animals are taken by large numbers then the population will decrease making it harder to reproduce. There is also illegal trade of certain animals and even plants. These people go into the wild and capture wild parakeets to then be sold. It seems like it is all about profit; not for the good of humankind!! This really has to stop if we want our plant to beautiful and safe to live in. Fishermen go out in these big boats to catch a large amount of fish not only to sell to the market, but put food on their table too. The government has put restrictions on these big boats, making it so they can only fish on certain day and for so many days. The reason they are doing it is because they are trying to preserve the food supply and the food web of the ecosystem. Some fisherman don't understand that because on those certain days that they are allowed out to fish the weather might be awful and they can't go out. There are species that are a direct value of biodiversity. One example is the rosy periwinkle, that has provided useful medicines. There are certain chemicals in this plant that are known to be used in the treatment of cancer. Also, because of this plant survival of childhood leukemia has gone from 10% to 90% . There are a lot of amazing things in this world that scientists and others are exploring to make our plant better and making people better. Research is a wonderful thing!! We all can do our part to go green!!!!

test post

2008-11-26T12:19:00.001-08:00

LAB IV: 10 EVENTS OF EMBRYONIC & FETAL DEVELOPMENT

2008-11-25T11:28:00.001-08:00

STAGE 1 & 2: After fertilization occurs, the zygote is produced. The zygote is what becomes the embryo. The zygote leaves the fallopian tube and enters the uterus.

As you an see in the picture above the zygote is traveling to the uterus for implantation. The process of the fertilization happens 1 day post ovulation and the zygote process occurs 1 to 3 day post ovulation. Both happen within the first trimester of pregnancy.

STAGE 4: Implantation also takes place within the first trimester and 5-6 day post ovulation. Implantation is significant because if it doesn't happen correctly then this could result in losing the baby. The placenta also begins to develop in this stage. This is very significant because this is where the fetus gets its nourishment.

www.ehd.org

pic of implantation

STAGE 6: Gastrulation begins, which is the migration of cells to the outer edges of the disc into the primitive streak and down creating a new third layer. This occurs 13 days post ovulation. The embryo now has three layers ectoderm,mesoderm,and endoderm which will develop into differently. The ectoderm will develop into skin, hair, lens of the eyes, and many more things. The mesoderm will develop into muscle, bones, lymphatic vessels, spleen, heart, and lungs. The endoderm will develop into lining of the lungs, tongue tonsils, urethra, and GI tract.

STAGE 23: I think this a significant event because this is the end of the first trimester and the embryo is now a fetus. This occurs 56 -60 days post ovulation. It looks like a baby inside the mother. The had and neck are rounded, the ears are developed externally, intestines begin to migrate from the umbilical cord into the body cavity. The limbs are developed and the fingers grow longer and the feet are not longer a tail or webbed.

STAGE (16 WEEKS) 2ND TRIMESTER: This is significant because the bone marrow begins to make blood cells. The fetus is moving around. The brain develops rapidly and continues five years after birth. Here is a 3-D picture of this stage.

www.goldenviewultrasound.com

STAGE (24 WEEKS AND 3RD TRIMESTER): I think this stage is significant because the fetus eyes are sensitive to light and the ears are sensitive to sound!! How cool!!! Also, the significance of this stage the blood vessels start to develop in the lungs to prepare the fetus for living outside of the uterus. Picture of another 3-D fetus at 24 weeks.

STAGE (32 WEEKS 3RD TRIMESTER): The significance of the stage is that the fetus begins to develop an immune system, which is very important!! What I think is neat is that the fetus eyes open during wake hours and close during sleep periods!! Picture of 32 weeks (7 months).

STAGE (34 WEEKS, 3RD TRIMESTER): This stage is significant because the fetus's GI system is very immature and it does not fully develop until 3-4 years after birth!! WOW! Also, they have stored fat to keep them warm.

STAGE 38 WEEKS 3RD TRIMESTER): This is significant because the liver is producing blood cells. Also the fetus is gaining weight (1/2 ounce of fat).

www.pregnancyhut.com

STAGE (WEEKS 3RD TRIMESTER): This is significant because this means the fetus has been carried full term. I think this is very important because most of the development happens within the mother. Premature babies can have a lot of complications. When the fetus is born it has 300 bones! This picture shows the 40th week and the mother should be ready to deliver any day.

www.kappamedical.com

Just another picture because I thought it was sooo cute!

There are so many stages of a pregnancy and it was hard choose what was more significant then others, but I think I narrowed it down.

2008-11-22T14:47:00.002-08:00

SORRY THAT DIDN'T WORK EITHER!

COMPENDIUM IV

2008-11-22T14:47:00.001-08:00

ANOTHER PICTURE THAT DID NOT POST CORRECTLY. THIS PICTURE IS TO REPLACE THE LITTLE GIRL STICKING HER TONGUE OUT. SORRY!!

compendium IV pic of contraceptives

2008-11-22T14:43:00.001-08:00

some of the pictures I choose for my compendium did not upload properly. Trying again!

UNIT IV COMPENDIUM REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM & DEVELOPMENT WITH AGING

2008-11-22T14:39:00.001-08:00

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

a. male reproductive system, orgasm & hormonal regulation

b. female reproductive system, orgasm & Ovarian cycle

c. female hormones relation to reproduction

d. birth control and infertility

e. sexually transmitted diseases

As you can see above, the reproductive system consists of our primary and secondary sex organs. Mostly, the primary are responsible for reproducing another human being. There are many steps into creating a human. I will begin with the male reproductive system and what it consists of and their functions. The primary sex organs a.k.a., gonads are the testicles, which are in a sac called the scrotum. (You can see this in the picture above). The vas deferens is the tube that connects with the urethra to release sperm. The urethra also releases urine. Sperm is produced in the testicles and they mature in the epididymis. The epididymis is a tightly coiled duct that is outside of the each testicle. The sperm need to mature so they can swim to the egg inside of the female. Sperm leaves the epididymis and enters the vas deferens. When ejaculation occurs sperm leaves the penis in a fluid called semen. The seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands add secretions to seminal fluid. The seminal vesicles lie at the base of the bladder. The prostate gland is a donut shaped gland that surrounds the upper portion of the urethra just below the bladder. The prostate can enlarge in some males, making it difficult to urinate. The bulbbourethral glands are pea-sized organs are under the prostate and their secretion helps make the seminal fluid more gelatinous. Sperm needs energy to swim and the seminal fluid actually contains fructose, which is a sugar; this sugar give the sperm energy to swim. The semen also contain a chemical, prostaglandin, that causes the female uterus to contract and some scientists believe that these contractions help propel the semen towards the egg for fertilization. The penis is the male organ used during sexual intercourse. It has a long shaft and the tip of the penis the called the glans penis. The glans penis is usually covered with skin, but when a male baby is born, most couples decide to that extra skin removed. This procedure is called a circumcision. When a male has an orgasm the spongy erectile tissue containing distensible blood spaces extends through the shaft of the penis. When a male is sexually aroused, autonomic nerves release nitric oxide and this stimulates the production of cGMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate). The cGMP causes the smooth muscle of incoming arterial walls to relax and the erectile tissue to fill with blood. The veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect. Some men suffer erectile function (they cannot get a erection). This happens when the erectile tissue doesn't expand enough to compress the veins. The are medications for "ED" but one of the side effects is that it may cause blindness. The medication itself inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cGMP to insure an erection. Also, because urine and semen pass through the urethra, there is a sphincter (a opening) that closes off the bladder so that no urine enters the urethra. Within the testicles there are seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells. The testicles have compartments called lobules and each contain three tightly coiled seminiferous tubules and packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis, which is the production of sperm. During the production of sperm it goes through a process. First spermatogonia divide to produce primary spermatocytes that move away from the outer wall, increase in size, and undergoes meiosis II (nuclear division) to produce four spermatids, and contains 23 chromosomes. Spermatids then differentiate into sperm. It takes 74 days for sperm to undergo development from spermatogonia to sperm. The sperm actually has three parts to it. There is the head, tail and middle piece. The head is what penetrates the egg in the female and contains a nucleus covered by a cap called the acrosome.

www.advancedfertility.com (pic of microscopic sperm)

The acrosome stores enzymes needed to penetrate the egg. The middle piece of the sperm contains mitochondria which gives the tail (flagellum) its movement. Interstitial cells are hormone secreting cells located between the seminiferous tubules and the testes. They are also known as the androgens. One of the androgens is testosterone, this is the main sex hormone in males and is essential for the normal development and function of the reproductive organs in males. Also, testosterone is responsible for males hair on their face, chest, and other regions of the body. Testosterone is responsible for the muscular development in males. In hormonal regulation in males the hypothalamus controls the testes sexual function because it secretes a hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete the GnRH. There are two gonadotropic hormones; follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). Both male and female have these hormones, but with males FSH promotes the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules. LH in males controls the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells. These hormones act in a negative feedback; meaning that when there is too much testosterone produces the hypothalamus sends a signal to the anterior pituitary to decrease the secretion.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

At the top of this compendium is a picture of the female reproduction system. The female gonads are the ovaries that lies in a shallow depressions one on each side of the pelvic cavity. The ovaries produce eggs and the female sex hormones; estrogen and progesterone. The oviducts also known to many as the fallopian tubes extend from the ovaries, but are not attached. They have finger like projections called fimbriae which helps sweep the egg into the oviduct. When egg enters the oviduct it is propelled by cilia and muscle contraction toward the uterus. The lives only 6-24 hours unless fertilization occurs. If fertilization does occur then a zygote (baby) is formed. With fertilization, the egg and sperm meet and the sperm penetrates the egg breaking off its head inside the egg. A developing embryo arrives at the uterus after several days and then is implanted in the uterine lining. The uterus is a thick walled muscular organ it lies above and is tipped over the urinary bladder. The oviducts join the uterus at its upper end and the lower end the cervix enter the vagina. During sexual intercourse the vagina is the opening that receives the penis. It also serves as the birth canal and for menstrual flow. The embryo develops takes place in the uterus. The uterus is sometimes referred to as the womb. The uterus is capable of stretching over 30 cm wide to support the growing fetus. The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium and participates in the formation of the placenta, which helps nourish the growing fetus. The endometrium is also involved in the menstrual cycle in females. If a woman does not get pregnant, the the cells sloth off the endometrium. The female has external parts to their vagina. One is the vulva, which includes two large hair covered folds of skin called the labia majora. Secondly is the labia minora and it also has two small folds and lies inside of the labia majora. When a women has a orgasm the labia minora, the vaginal wall, and the clitoris (external part) become filled with blood. The vagina expands and elongates. The blood vessels in the vaginal wall release small droplet of fluid that seep into the vagina for lubrication. This lubrication allows the penis to enter easily. The ovarian cycle occurs on a monthly basis. The ovary contains many follicles and each one contains an immature egg called a oocyte. A female is born with millions of follicles, but they are reduced by puberty.

www.bioweb.wku.edu

This picture above gives you a little idea of the ovarian cycle. It goes in a circle. The female produces one egg a month. When the follicle matures during the ovarian cycle it changes from a primary to a secondary to a vesicular (Graafian) follicle. The ovarian cycle is a series of events in the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation of the oocyte (egg or ovum). During the female reproductive years, non-pregnant females usually experience a cyclical sequence of changes in their ovaries and uterus. Each cycle takes about one month and involves both oogenesis, the process of formation and development of oocyte, and preparation of the uterus to receive a fertilized ovum. The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I (Nuclear division), and the resulting cells are haploid with 23 chromosomes. Similar to the males sperm. One of the cells that are produced is called a polar body and it acts as a trash can because it holds chromosomes that have been discarded. The secondary oocyte undergoes meiosis II (nuclear division) but only if it is first fertilized by a sperm cell. If it remains unfertilized it will never complete meiosis and it will die. Ovulation takes place when the vesicular follicle burst and releases the egg (oocyte) covered with a clear membrane. When the egg loses its vesicular follicle it develops into a corpus luteum; if the egg is not fertilized the corpus luteum disintegrates. Also, the corpus luteum produces progesterone. The hypothalamus has control over a women's ovaries just as it does the male testes. It controls the sexual function and release GnRH (gonadtropin-releasing hormone) and they stimulate the pituitary to produce FSH and LH. The follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing hormone (LH) control the ovarian cycle. In the first half of the follicular phase FSH promotes the development of follicles that secrete estrogen. When the estrogen levels increase, it sends a message to the anterior pituitary secretion of FSH so that the follicular phase comes to an end. The positive feedback effect has estrogen spike causes a sudden secretion of a large amount of GnRH from the hypothalamus. Then, LH production by the pituitary and to ovulation at about the 14th day of a 28 day cycle. The luteal phase begins and this is when the LH promotes the development of the corpus luteum, and this secretes progesterone.

FEMALE HORMONES WITH RELATION TO REPRODUCTION

The primary hormones in females are estrogen and progesterone. They are not only involved in the process of the menstruation, but for example estrogen is responsible for the females secondary sexual characteristics. These characteristics are body hair and fat distribution. Females carry more fat then males. Progesterone and estrogen play a role in another sex characteristics and that is breast development. When a woman goes through menopause they don't menstruate as often (becomes irregular), and their estrogen and progesterone are no longer secreted. The ovaries are no longer responsive to gonadotropic hormones produced by the pituitary. There are hormone replacement drugs that woman can take, but studies show that when taken over a period of time it could cause cancer, heart attack and stroke. Estrogen and progesterone play another role; the uterine cycle. This is when menstruation occurs. During the first and fifth day a low level estrogen and progesterone in the body causes the endometrium to disintegrate and its blood vessels to rupture, causing the female to bleed. this blood and tissue known as the menses (period). During days 6 thru 13 increased production of estrogen by a new ovarian follicle in the ovary causes the endometrium to thicken and become vascular and glandular. This is call the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.. On day 14 ovulation usually occurs. Days 15 thru 28 there is an increase in progesterone by the corpus luteum in the ovary causes the endometrium of the uterus to double or triple in thickness and the uterine glands to mature producing a thick mucoid secretion. This cycle last 28 days. If a women has unprotected sex and could become pregnant. When the male ejaculates in the female, his sperm try to make its way to the oviduct where the egg is located for fertilization. Only one sperm can fertilize an egg and when it does the egg/sperm becomes a zygote. then it travels to the uterus where it will attach itself to the endometrium and begin to grow into an embryo. the embryo is nourished by the placenta that is developed for the maternal and the fetal tissues. The placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which maintain the corpus luteum in the ovary. The HCG shows up in the females urine and blood; so if these tests are performed at a lab it shows that she is pregnant. As the HCG levels rise to stimulate the corpus luteum to produce increasing amounts of progesterone. and this progesterone shuts down the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary so that no new follicle begin in the ovary. The progesterone is now responsible to maintain the uterine lining where the embryo.

BIRTH CONTROL AND INFERTILITY

The are a number of contraceptives that couples can use to protect against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. The birth control for females is one contraceptive whereas the female has to take a pill daily. These pills contain estrogen and progesterone. There are also placebo pills and these are just a reminder that you need to take all the pill in the pack! These pills work by supplying the body with the sex hormones for a large part of the cycle. They inhibit the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary so no new follicle begin in the ovary and ovulation does not occur. Other forms of contraceptive are an IUD (intrauterine device) and this is placed inside the female.

www.en.wikipedia.org

This picture above is the IUD.

www.healthofchildren.com

This picture above shows different forms of contraceptives. The birth control pill is in that round case. There is a condom that the male has to put on his penis before intercourse. A diaphragm is also another device that is inserted into the female and it is fitted by a physician. With the diaphragm a spermicide jelly is also used for added protection. These contraceptives are not 100% effective. There are also procedure that both sexes can do that should be 100% effective. The female could have a tubal ligation and this is when the tie the females fallopian tubes. The male can undergo a vasectomy and this is when the vas deferens are cut on each side so that the sperm are unable to reach the seminal fluid that is ejected at the time of orgasm. There is a new pill called the morning after, and this is when the female takes two pills after a night of sexual intercourse because she thinks she might get pregnant and then two more pills 12 hours later. Some people protect themselves from getting regnant, but there are others who try and con not get pregnant. This is called infertility and there are different reasons why this occurs. It can be due to the female or male. With the males the most common reason for infertility is their sperm count is low or the sperm are abnormal due to environmental influences. It is said that smoking and alcohol consumption is most often the cause of infertility. Also, if males have a job that requires them to sit for long periods of time the testes temperature remains too high for adequate sperm production. The most come cause of female infertility is being overweight. In a normal size female, fat cells produce a hormone call leptin that stimulates the hypothalamus to release GnRH. In the overweight female the ovaries contain small follicles and the female fail to ovulate. Some women suffer from a inflammatory disease called pelvic inflammatory disease and this blocks the oviducts. Women also suffer endometriosis in which the presence of uterine tissue outside the uterus in the oviducts and the abdominal organs. There is a backward flow of the menstrual flow allows living uterine cells to establish themselves in the abdominal cavity, where they go through the usual uterine cycle, causing pain and structural abnormalities that make it more difficult for a female to conceive. There are alternatives that couples can consider in order to get pregnant. One procedure is the in vitro fertilization. This is when conception happens in a lab. The immature egg is in a glass dish and is implanted with viable sperm. After two to four days, the embryo is then transferred and implanted into the females uterus during the secretory phase of her uterine cycle. If this goes well then the female should have a normal pregnancy. Another form of infertility treatment is artificial insemination by donor. This is when a male donates his sperm for woman who want to get pregnant. The doctor administers the sperm into the female. If possible the females partner sperm is used. Some people choose another route and that is a surrogate mother. For some this is their only option because other treatments have failed. The surrogate mother is when the male may donate his sperm and the female along with his sperm, can use her egg to be transferred into a "surrogate mother" (another person). These surrogate mothers are paid to have babies. This can be a dangerous alternative because sometimes the surrogate mother wants to keep the baby instead of giving it to the "infertile couple."

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Some sexually transmitted diseases can be fatal and are caused by viruses. For instance AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) or HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). First people get the virus which can then turn into AIDS. There is no cure for AIDS and many have died from this sexually transmitted disease. Homosexual couples are the ones who are the most exposed. The primary host for HIV is a helper T lymphocyte and these are the cells that stimulate am immune response. The immune system of AIDS patients are extremely compromised. There is a pneumonia called Karposi pneumonia that can kill the person who suffers from aids. During the first stage of HIV infection there really isn't any symptoms. People can go years without knowing that they have this virus unless they are tested. They can infect other people because the virus is highly contagious. After years with no symptoms, the helper lymphocyte count falls and infection such as other STD's begin to appear. In the last stage, called AIDS the helper T cells count falls way below normal leaving the person susceptible to more infections. There is no cure, but most people living with this virus can seek treatment. The treatment is called highly active antiretrovial therapy (HAART) and it usually is able to stop HIV reproduction to the extent that the virus becomes undetectable in the blood. The medication has to be taken indefinitely because there is no cure and the virus could rebound. Another STD is genital warts and this is also caused by a virus called the human papillomaviruses or HPV. This virus can go undetected because the warts are sometimes flat and they occur on the penis of the male and around the vaginal opening in females. This virus can be transmitted to others and the wart can recur. There is a new treatment out for the genital warts and that is a vaccine. They the development of this vaccine is extremely important in the prevention of cancer. Genital warts have a link to cervical cancer and tumors of the vulva, vagina, anus and penis. A similar STD closely related to genital warts is genital herpes. They are caused by different viruses but they both produce warts or scabs around the genitalia. Genital herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus. There is type I which causes cold sores and fever blisters and then there is type II that cause genital herpes. Type II is more common in adults and some experience a tingling sensation before a blister appears on the genitals. When the blisters rupture they leave a painful ulcer that may take as long as three weeks or as little as five days to heal. After these do heal the virus is latent and blisters can recur. This STD does not have a cure, but there are medications that can be taken to subdue outbreaks. People need to be aware of STD and take precautions!

DEVELOPMENT WITH AGING

a. fertilization

b. pre-embryonic and embryonic development

c. fetal development, fetal blood supply

d. pregnancy and birth

e. developmental after birth

www.bio.davidson.edu

This picture represents what happens when an egg and sperm come together and become a zygote. This is called fertilization. The little white box above shows just one sperm and what it consists of. The tail is actually called flagellum and this helps the sperm swim towards the egg for fertilization. Also, in the white box above you can see the middle portion which contain mitochondria which gives the sperm its energy. The head of the sperm consists of a nucleus capped by a membrane bound acrosome. The nucleus from the sperms head is what fuses with the egg nucleus. The egg has a plasma membrane that is surrounded by a extracellular matrix called the zona pellucida and this is covered by layers of adhering follicular cells called corona radiata. These cells nourish the egg when it is in a follicle of the ovary. When fertilization takes place, several sperm try to penetrate the corona radiata and several try to penetrate zona pellucida but only one sperm enters the egg. The acrosome has an acrosomal enzyme that eats through the jelly coat and then the head of the sperm adheres tightly to the zona pellucida and the acrosomal enzymes continue a pathway through the zona pellucida. Then the sperm binds the egg connecting their plasma membranes. The sperm enters the egg and then nucleus's fuses. For the proper development to occur only one sperm should enter the egg. When the sperm touches an egg the eggs plasma membrane depolarizes, making it so no other sperm can penetrate it. Also, vesicles called cortical granules release enzymes that cause the zona pellucida to become an impermeable fertilization membrane and now sperm cannot bind to the zona pellucida either. The pre-embryonic development has stages which I will explain each, but first here is a picture that gives the details of the processes that happen.

www.mhhe.com

The first thing is the cleavage and the happens immediately after fertilization, the zygote begins divide so that there are first two then 4,8,16, and 32 cells and so on. Increase in size does not accompany these divisions. Cell division during cleavage is mitotic, and each cell receives a full complement of chromosomes and genes. Next is growth, and with this during embryonic development, cell division is accompanied by an increase in size of the daughter cells. Morphogensis refers to the shaping of the embryo and is first evident when certain cells are seen to move, migrate, in relation to other cells. The embryo begins to assume various shapes. Differentiation is when cells take on a specific structure and function. The first system to become visible differentiated is the nervous system. As in the picture above you can see the morula which a compact ball of cells, and later becomes a blastocyst. The many cells of the blastocyst arrange themselves so that there is an inner cell mass (also in pic) surrounded by an outer layer of cells. The inner cell mass becomes the embryo and the layer of cells will become the chorion.

www.healthline.com

www.en.wikibooks.org

The pictures above represent the pre-embryonic development. I love the second one because this picture is so life like. The embryo also contains extraembryonic membranes that have specific functions. The chorion develops into the fetal half of the placenta, the organ that nourishes the embryo/fetus and provides oxygen and takes away waste. Blood vessels within the chorionic villi are continuous with the umbilical blood vessels. The allantois, like the yolk sac, extends away from the embryo. It accumulates the small amount of urine produced by the fetal kidneys and later gives rise to the urinary bladder. The blood vessels become the umbilical blood vessels, which take blood to and from the fetus. The umbilical arteries carry O2 poor blood to the placenta and the umbilical veins carry O2 rich blood from the placenta. The yolk sac is the first embryonic membrane to appear. This sac contains blood vessels and is the first site for blood formation. Aminion enlarges as the embryo and then the fetus enlarges. It contains fluid to cushion and protect the embryo. Stages of development is from fertilization to birth. I already went over the preembryoic development now we will go into the embryonic development. It starts on the second week and last until the end of the second month of development.

www.sciencehelpdesk.com

This picture shows the stages of embryonic development. As it grows it get larger. At the end of the first week the embryo starts to implant itself in the wall of the uterus. When this is completed you are "clinically pregnant." Sometimes the egg gets fertilized in the fallopian tube; this is called an ectopic pregnancy and it must be terminated because it can not grow in the fallopian tube. During implantation, the chorion secretes enzymes to digest away some of the tissue and blood vessels of the endometrium of the uterus. The chorion also start to secrete HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) which is the hormone that is the basis of a pregnancy test. This hormone also serves to maintain the corpus luteum past the time it normally would disintegrates. Also, because the corpus luteum is being stimulated it secretes progesterone so the endometrium is maintained and the expected menstruation doesn't occur. The embryo is the size of a period, which you can see in the picture above. As the embryo develops week after week the inner cell mass becomes the embryonic disk and two more extraembrynic membranes form. The yolk sac is the first site of blood cell formation. The amniotic cavity surrounds the embryo as it develops. There is fluid in the amniotic cavity called amniotic fluid. This fluid helps insulate and acts as a shock absorber. The third week the nervous system is the first organ system to appear. Also, development of the heart begins. In fifth week, the embryo starts to curve the head is large and you can see little stubs for limbs. The sixth week the fingers and toes are present. At two months, all organ systems are developed, bone is replacing cartilage and facial features are becoming clear. Fetal development begins now. In the third month you can tell what sex your baby will be. The fourth month the hair starts to noticeable. The fifth month the heartbeat can be heard. Sixth month is when the skin is becoming wrinkled and reddish. The seventh month, if a boy the testes descend into the scrotum, eyes are open, and they are getting longer. The eighth month they are becoming fat. Last but not least, the ninth month, the fetus is ready to be born and the mother is ready to give birth!! Fetal blood supply is a very intricate thing.

www.coolschool.ca

This picture shows how the fetus gets its blood supply. As you can see in pink, that is the placenta that is formed by embryonic and uterine tissues. the umbilical cord runs from the placenta to the fetus's what will soon be belly button. The umbilical veins carry O2 rich blood and the arteries carry O2 poor blood. Both the arteries and the veins are housed in the umbilical cord. The umbilical vein enters the liver and then joins the venous duct which merges with the inferior vena cava; returns blood the heart. The mixed blood enters the heart and is shunted to the left atrium through an oval opening. An opening or hole between the right and left atria of the heart. This opening is covered with a flap that allows blood to move from the right atrium to the left atrium only. Movement of blood from the right atrium to the left side of the heart bypasses the lungs and allows the oxygenated blood from the placenta to be delivered to the body. Following birth and the cutting of the umbilical cord, blood begins to flow into and out of the lungs. Blood returning from the lungs to the left atrium closes the flap between the two atria.

PREGNANY TO BIRTH

When a women becomes pregnant she may experience morning sickness, fatigue, and loss of appetite. Theses symptoms subside an new ones take their place. Women get craving for certain foods or sometimes food they liked before becoming pregnant they don't like anymore. Women gain weight, their breasts get bigger, and along with that comes back pain. During birth the uterus contracts and this when a woman knows it is time for the baby to come out. At first the contractions last 20 to 30 seconds and occurs every 15 to 20 minutes. As the time decreases, the contractions come closer together. Some woman have false-labor contractions and these are called braxton hicks contractions. During the contractions that are close together, the cervical canal slowly disappears as the lower part of the uterus is pulled upward toward the baby's head. The amniotic membrane ruptures and leak out of the vagina. Then the cervix begins to dilate (becomes larger) to deliver the baby. The contractions should be 1-2 minutes apart and last about a minute each. These make the woman want to start pushing the baby out, but the cervix needs to be dilated at least 10 cm. Some woman have to undergo a episiotomy, which is an incision that enlarges the opening, because they can't dilate. the incision is sewn together after the baby is born. The baby makes it way through the vagina and the umbilical cord is cut and clamped on the baby. Then the woman has to deliver the placenta (afterbirth). This usually takes a little while. About 15 minutes after the birth of the baby the uterine muscular contraction shrink the uterus and dislodges the placenta. After the birth of the baby development does not stop. The baby will continue to develop and go through stages like infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. All of these stages have different effects on the body.

www.swimwithbaby.com

Here is a picture of the tiny baby's hand holding a mothers hand. See we never stop developing! Physical changes can be seen, but there are a lot of changes happening inside our bodies too!

UNIT III ETHICAL ISSUE: THE WORLDS OBESITY & EXERCISE!

2008-11-13T15:20:00.001-08:00

www.abc.net.au

It is really amazing how obesity has grown in this country over the decades. Who is responsible for the obesity in this country?? In the article I read for this assignment, "Modifying the Environment to reverse Obesity" was a fascinating article about how different aspects of our environment actually contribute to obesity. It really opened my eyes! I have always been a person who exercises, but I use tapes and machines. I know walking is probably the most important exercise that any person can do. What opened my eyes in the article was the things in our environment that can help curb obesity eg., having sidewalks in your neighborhood or just getting out of your car to get your dry cleaning instead of going through the drive thru. Another big impact is advertisement!! In the last unit we hit on what the importance of food is and I wrote about making food affordable!!! Advertisement kills healthy eating because food high in fat and sugar COST LESS!!! You can feed a whole family at McDonalds.

www.pyzam.com

This picture above is a great example of cheap food that is extremely bad for you. These are the kinds of food that are advertised on TV, radio, and billboards!! Also, in the article I read, it stated that obesity has been on the rise gradually. I remember when my mother or father use to tell stories saying, " I use to walk 2 miles just to get school every day." Now a days children ride the bus or drive themselves to school. Even parents drive their children to school. This shows how times have changed. There are also cultural eating. This food can be high in fat and eaten frequently. A lot of people have traditions with food! Do people have traditions to exercise together?? Maybe! I think now a days people make the excuses that they don't have TIME! I can understand that. Moms are working and rushing around do a lot of other things. Who wants to work out after a day filled with chaos!! I don't think there is enough advertisement for exercise. Once in awhile you see a bally commercial, but you see more advertisement for fast food joints. I am really convinced with reading that article that obesity is due to our environment. I never looked at it that way before because I a person who will take the stairs instead of the elevator. I may have eaten at those fast food joints long ago, but I know now that they are bad for your health. A lot of people may think; I am this big now what is the point of exercising! I think we all know the answer to that question.....Its never to late to start something or anything. I think that with a gradual change obesity can can change. If it took us decades to create this environment, why not gradually change it. There is a new incentive with one particular company that says if you are obese they raise your health insurance, BUT they also provide exercise alternatives and other things. Is that fair??!!! Well, some may say it isn't fair, but you really have to look at the whole picture. Healthy employees stick around longer. I no sure if I agree or disagree with this company. Blue Cross and Blue Shield of RI has a program for people who want to join. What all the disease walks people go on. Why not do those walk JUST to be healthy!! I am sure there are a lot of other gradual or even drastic changes we can make to the environment that can help obesity decline. People have to make choices about getting out of the car to get their mail or go into the pharmacy to get the prescription. There are tons of little things that people could do to improve their health. It is all about choice! All the other web sites for this assignment are great!!! Especially the one regarding children. It is scary to think of young children having diabetes due to their weight. I love the new games that are out today that makes kids get up and move. There really are incentives for people to get health, but I still say its all about choice. I could go on forever with this essay because I want to see obesity eliminated!!

UNIT III WORKING MODEL OF A HUMAN LIMB

2008-11-08T13:45:00.001-08:00

For this lab I had to create a working model of a limb and what transpires within the muscle of a limb. I choose the upper arm as my limb and the bicep as my muscle. The bone in the arm is the humerus and the bones in the forearm are the ulna and radius. I will start by explaining what materials I used in my model of the limb, muscle, neuron, and the things that transpire with the muscle.

I used Styrofoam for the limb along with pipe cleaners, also with the pipe cleaners for the sliding filaments. I used the play- doh for the muscle, neuron, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and licorice for the t-tubules. I also used, which I forgot to add into this picture, was little candies for my sodium and potassium gates. The gates were made of play-doh also. I used the plastic wrap from the poster board for my sarcolemma. The poster board was used for my neuron. I will have an explanation of each photo have taken for the lab.

This is the photo of my working limb. You can see the humerus, ulna, and radius. At the bottom of the ulna and radius are the carpal's in which these bone articulate with. Made with Styrofoam and pipe cleaners.

In this photo is the humerus with a muscle (red) and the tendons (yellow). Made with Styrofoam, play-doh, and pipe cleaners.

This picture shows a neuron with all of its components. The cell body, dendrites, axon terminal, the axon, schwann cells, nucleus, and the node of Ravier. There are different types of neurons. There are sensory neurons which are responsible for transmitting nerve impulses toward the Central nervous system (eg., getting poked by a rose thorn). The other kind is a motor neuron and they are responsible for transmitting nerve impulses away from the central nervous system ( pulling your hand away from the rose thorn). Schwann cells act as a cushion around the neuron. Axon is where action potential travel. The cell body holds the nucleus. The dendrites help carry a signal towards the cell body. Node of Ravier are the bare green spots that help with saltatory conduction, which is the action potential jumping from node to node. All made of play-doh.

This is a picture of a sarcomere which is contracted. What that means is, this sarcomere is part of your muscle, Just a small portion of your muscle. The sarcomeres are what make the muscle shorten when it is contracted, with help of you flexing (eg., flex your arm). As you can see I used pipe cleaners.

in this photo is a muscle (red play-doh) that is encased inside the sarcolemma (plastic wrap). The myofibril (licorice) is a part of a sarcomere, which I explained above. The sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of the muscle and contains t-tubules.

In this photo I tried to represent the sliding filaments. The actin make up the thin filaments within a sarcomere and the myosin makes up the thick filaments. Their purpose is to create a power stroke. This is how the muscle works, or what is actually going on inside your muscle when you are exercising, walking, or just picking up a book. The tropomyosin regulate myosin and actin interaction. Myosin walks along the actin. In the picture myosin (orange) has heads and the actin (blue/pink) have a binding site for myosin to fit. It just keeps going and going until the muscle relaxes. Made with play-doh and pipe cleaners. The actin,myosin and tropomyosin are all proteins.

This is a picture of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (blue clay) with the t-tubule(licorice) going through it and calcium(candies) being released. In order for your muscle to contract calcium needs to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. An action potential causes the release of the calcium. An action potential is when the nerve cells carry a signal over a distance.

The is a picture a (close up) neuron just showing the axon portion with sodium and potassium gates releasing their product (ions) into and out of a cell. This is a action potential that is propagated, meaning that these two ions are flowing and the cell is becoming polarized. It must reach an equal balance on both side of the cell. These gates open and close to allow these ions to pass through. Made of play-doh and candies.

CONCLUSION:

This lab of building a working limb taught me how our bones are connected, how muscles work, and what transpires inside of a muscle. It is hard to believe that all of this is actually going on while I am sitting here typing!! It was hard to display all that I wanted to, but I hope I touched on the important stuff. What I was trying to show with this model is the details of what is behind our skin and how a muscle works.

UNIT III MUSCLE LAB

2008-11-07T10:55:00.000-08:00

For this lab we had to see effects on our muscles doing intervals of exercises, measuring the circumference of the muscle in the upper arm, and affects of temperature. Also, having to feel the muscle in the jaw area and what happens when you grit your teeth. The importance of this lab is to see what actually happens to our muscles while doing different exercises. the picture below shows the things I used during this lab.

In this picture above you see that I have an ice bath for my hand, a measuring tape, the little santa (instead of rubber ball for squeezing), watch (hidden), print out from lab website, and a pen.

BELOW IS THE FORM FROM THE WEBSITE WITH DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO PERFORM THE LAB EXPERIMENTS. I WILL FOLLOW UP WITH A CONCLUSION OF THE RESULTS.

Effect of Temperature on Muscle Action

1. Count the number of times you can make a fist in 20 seconds. Start with
your hand completely outstretched and make a tight fist each time. Do it
as rapidly as you can. Record the count in Figure 1.

2. Now submerge your hand in a dishpan of water to which has been added
snow or ice so that the temperature is near the freezing point. Leave your
hand in the water for one full minute.

3. Remove your hand and immediately count how many forceful fists you can
make in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Effect of Temperature on Muscle Action

Temperature
Number of Fists
Normal 32
---------------
Ice Water 20
------------------------

his picture above shows me holding my hand in an ice bath for one minute (not fun)!! It was extremely cold.

Effect of Fatigue on Muscle Action

1. Count how many times you can tightly squeeze a rubber ball in your hand
in 20 seconds. Record in Figure 2.

2. Repeat the squeezing nine more times and record results. Do not rest
between trials.

(An alternative procedure which works well is to open and close a
clothespin with the thumb and index finger while the other fingers are held
out straight.)

Figure 2: Effect of Fatigue on muscle action

Trial
# of Squeezes in 20 seconds
9 More X's
1. 44 -53
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2. 40 -49
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3. 36 -45
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4. 34- 43
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----------------------------------------
5. 32 -41
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6. 30 -39
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7. 28 -37
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----------------------------------------
8. 26 -35
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9. 24- 33
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10. 22- 31
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----------------------------------------

These are the results of squeezing santa.

I also observed what happens to your muscle when you measure it flexed and relaxed. I used a measuring tape. The circumference of my upper arm was 9 3/4 and when flexed it was 10 1/2. When you flex your circumference is larger.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. What are the three changes you observed in a muscle while it is working (contracted)?

2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.

3. What effect did fatigue have on the action of your hand muscles? Explain.

The three changes I observed in the muscle while it was working was that the muscle shorten, get fatigued when worked aggressively, and cold temperature slows the muscle.

The effects of cold water on my hand muscle was extreme. Before submerging my hand in ice waster I had to see how many times I could make a fist in 20 seconds (results above). After having my hand in ice water for one minute I had to see how many time I could make a fist in 20 seconds and the cold water actually slows the muscles down. It was hard to open and close my hand without really trying.

The exercise I did to see how it would effect my muscle was squeezing a rubber ball for 20 seconds and count how many times you could do it. In this case I used santas head because it was just like a rubber ball. My muscles were effected in the same way as the ice water. My hand wanted to stop!! I could not do as many reps as when I first started.

I also did the clenching of my teeth and could feel the muscle protruding outwards. This is the masseter muscle. This muscle is actually the strongest muscle in the body!!! Also, I did the measuring of the muscle using your fingers. When your arm is stretched out you can see a little muscle, but when you flex the muscle actually shortens and gets bigger.

http://www.aacd.com/

This picture shows the masseter muscle.

CONCLUSION:

Muscle contractions are actually due to skeletal muscle and they are attached to our skeleton. Without this we would be unable to walk or talk. Skeletal muscle also allows blood flow. When you go to do any exercise you don't tell your muscle to move, they move voluntarily. The nervous system is what actually gets your muscles to move., sending electrical impulses. A muscle is made up of "muscle cells." As for the cellular level of a muscle contraction; it is energy dependent. That means in order to contract it needs ATP and the release of calcium. I believe that the temperature of cold water and fatiguing the muscles slows down the release of calcium and uses up what ATP has been provided. With excessive exercise, at the cellular level, if oxygen is not used (glycolysis), the glucose turns to lactate. This is fermentation and when this occurs you feel a burning sensation because it turns to lactic acid. The myosin and actin are effected because if no ATP is being made because the glucose didn't continue to the Krebs cycle (etc) then the power stroke will not continue. Myosin relies on ATP for the power stroke. Also if calcium is not released, myosin will not be exposed to the actin binding site.

www.cm.utexas.edu

OOPS!! LEECH LAB ADDITION

2008-11-07T10:29:00.000-08:00

I forgot to identify a cell, so this is an addition to my leech lab!

UNIT III LEECH LAB

2008-11-04T13:57:00.001-08:00

For this lab I did a virtual lab where I dissected a leech and obtained a neuron for study. After obtaining the specimen it was placed on an micromanipulator and an glass microelectrode was probed into the neuron for stimuli. There were also three different stimulus; a feather, probe and forceps. I took a screen shot of those three stimulus, which you can see below.

QUESTIONS ABOUT LEECH NEUROPHYSIOLOGY LAB

1. WHAT IS THE ELECTRODE MEASURING? The electrode is measuring the activity (voltage) of individual neurons and the sound.

2. WHY USE LEECHES IN NEUROPHYSIOLOGY EXPERIEMENTS? Leeches are the best specimens because they have a small amount of neurons, BUT they are very large in size.

3. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SENSORY AND A MOTOR NEURON? Sensory neurons transmits nerve impulses TOWARD the central nervous system and motor neurons transmits impulses AWAY from the central nervous system and towards a effector organ such as muscles and glands.

4. DO YOU THINK A LEECH EXPERIENCES PAIN? WHAT IS PAIN? I don't think the leech experienced pain because it was anesthetized prior to being cut up. Pain is a sensation that is transmitted with sensory and motor neurons. It is just like the reflex arc in which someone stuck by a pin on their hand; they will pull their hand away.

5. WHAT WERE THE TWO MOST INTERESTING THINGS ABOUT DOING THIS LAB? I think it would have been even more interesting if I were doing it in reality, but the whole lab was interesting. I particularly liked how you could hear the sounds of the neuron and watching the screen to see have different stimulus affected the neuron.

6. ANYTHING YOU FOUND CONFUSING OR DIDN'T LIKE ABOUT THE LAB? No, I didn't find anything confusing about the lab. I think the directions were straight forward.

HERE IS A PICTURE OF THE THE NEURON BEING STUCK WITH THE GLASS MICROELECTRODE.

THIS IS A PICTURE OF THE NEURON WITH THE DYE INJECTION AND THE UV LIGHT TO SHOW THE NEURON.

COMPENDIUM III SKELETAL SYSTEM & MUSCLE SYSTEM

2008-11-03T18:32:00.001-08:00

WWW.files.blog-city.com

SKELETAL SYSTEM

A. structure & function of the skeletal system

B. development, growth, remodeling, and repair of bone

C. bones of the axial skeleton and their function

D. Appendicular skeleton and their function

The skeletal system consists of all the bones in are body, cartilage and connective tissue. Bones are actually alive!! Bones, not only support our body, but do so much more. Bones protect internal organs, provide movement, stores mineral reserves and provides a site for blood cell formation. The different types of blood cells, WBC and RBC, are produced in the bone marrow. There are 206 bones in the human body. As I said above bones are alive. They are a solid network of living cells and protein fibers that are surrounded by deposits of calcium salts. A typical long bone, has a shaft and is called the diaphysis. The diaphysis has a medullary cavity which has walls made up of compact bone and is lined with a vascular membrane called the endosteum and is filled with yellow bone marrow which stores fat. The end of a bone is called the epiphysis and this portion of the bone contains spongy bone which has red bone marrow, where blood cells are made. They are also coated with hyaline cartilage, which is called articular cartilage because it occurs at joints and helps reduce friction. All of the bone is covered with a fibrous connective tissue called periosteum, but the ends are not covered with the periosteum. The periosteum actually has four functions (1) shares blood supply, (2) tendons attach to periosteum,(3) periosteum increases diameter as bone grows, (4) it forms callus on the outside, which is if a the bone should break it forms a callus that is very strong! There is also a epiphyseal cartilage on a bone, which is a piece of hyaline cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis. It is important because it is responsible for the growth in the length of the bone. There is also a epiphyseal line which shows evidence that the epiphyseal cartilage existed.

www.i77.photobucket.com

Bone is on of the four major connective tissue types. It has a lot of extracellualr matrix. Compact bone is very dense and strong and makes up the majority of the diaphysis of long bones. Compact bone is also composed of tubular units called osteons. Inside the tubular unit are osteocytes which lie in the lacunae. Lacunae are tiny chambers arranged in concentric circles around a central canal. The osteocytes are the cells that live in bone tissue. They maintain the bone matrix and repair the bone if it breaks! The tiny canals are called canaliculi. These small canal through which extensions of osteocytes pass. They run through the bone matrix between the lacuna (hollow space) where the body of the osteocyte is found and the haversian canal where the blood vessels are found. This provides a way for cells to receive nutrients and get rid of wastes. Spongy bone is less dense then compact bone. It is usually found at the end of long bones and contains red bone marrow. It has a lot of thin plates called trabeculae separated by unequal spaces. Cartilage is not as strong as bone, but it is flexible because the matrix is gel-like and contains many collagenous and elastic fibers. Cartilage is avascular, meaning it has no nerves or blood vessels, it gets what it needs from the matrix. There are 3 different types of cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is firm and flexible. Fibrous cartilage is stronger then hyaline because the matrix contains wide rows of thick collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage is flexible and is found in the earlobe and epiglottis in our throat. Fibrous connective tissue are tissue that are closely compact collagenous fibers. It is found in ligaments that connect bone to bone and in tendons where it connect muscle to joints; aka articulations. Besides long bones there are short bones, irregular bones, and flat bones.

Development, growth, remodeling and repair of bone

Bone are made up of different types of cell that help with growth, remodeling and repair. Osteoblasts are bone forming cells. They secrete organic matrix of bone and promote the deposition of calcium salts into the matrix. Next, there are osteocytes and these are mature bone cells made up of osteoblasts. Another type of cell that helps with growth, remodeling, and repair are osteoclasts which are bone absorbing cells. They break done bone and help in depositing calcium and phosphate in the blood. Bone develop by ossification. There are two types of ossification. Intramembranous ossification which bones develop between sheets of fibrous connective tissue. The connective tissue becomes osteoblasts, which I just explained; secret the organic matrix of bone. The secretion is composed of mucopolysaccharides and collagen fibrils. This secretion is added to calcium salts which results in calcification. Through the process of ossification a trabeculae of spongy bone is formed. Spongy bone is on the inside of a bone. The periosteum that is outside the bone creates more osteoblasts to continue with the ossification. The trabeculae fuse together to be come compact bone. The other form of ossification is endochondral ossification and most of our bones are formed this way. This process is where cartilage becomes bone. The cartilage is replaced by the calcified bone matrix that makes these bones capable of bearing weight. There are also steps to the process of endochondral ossification. The first step is the cartilage model. Here chondrocytes lay down hyaline cartilage and is shaped like the future bones or cartilage models. When the cartilage is calcified the chondrocytes die off. Then the bone collar is formed. The osteoblasts secrete the organic bone matrix and the matrix undergoes calcification. This is how the bone collar is formed. This collar covers the diaphysis portion of the bone and will thicken with time. The primary ossification center is where the first bone formation takes place. The medullary cavity and secondary ossification sites are where the spongy bone of the diaphysis is absorbed by osteclasts and that cause the medullary cavity is formed. Lastly is the epiphyseal (growth) plate. Here there is cartilage left between the epiphysis and the diaphysis of a bone. The limb keep increasing in length as long as growth plates are still present. When the epiyseal plate closes, the bone no longer grows in length. There is a very important hormone that plays a key role in the growth of the epiyseal plate and that is the "growth hormone." The growth hormone is released from the anterior pituitary gland. This hormone stimulates growth. Too much of this hormone can cause a person to become gigantism or too little causes dwarfism.

www.equinestudies.org

The picture shows a great example of how bones grow! Bones are constantly being broken down by osteoclasts and reformed by osteoblasts in an adult. This is bone remodeling and helps keep bones strong. This process goes on through our life time where new bone is created and old bone is removed. There are two stages that go along with this process and that is absorption and formation. Those two words go along with osteoblasts and osteoclasts because osteoblasts are bone forming cells and the osteoclasts are the bone absorbing cells. The bone recycling also allows the body to regulate the amount of calcium in the blood. Calcium is stored in bones and can be released when it is needed by the body. The parathyroid releases calcium into the blood stream and can control the amount released. There is another hormone that works opposite of calcium and that is calcitonin. Osteoporosis can occur with age, especially in women because estrogen (female hormone) can increase the number of osteoblasts. With the reduction of estrogen the bones of women can be become weaker. Bone remodeling is also why bones can with stand stress. While doing physical activities it enlarges the bone in diameter at the region most affected by an activity. Bone repair is required if someone gets a fracture. This process takes a long time, but the bone will heal. When someone sustains a fracture the first thing that happens is blood vessels are broken inside the bone and this blood forms a hematoma (bloodclot). The repair of the bone starts with the fibrocartilaginous callus. This fills the space between the ends of the broken bone. Next,, the osteoblasts produce the trabeculae of spongy bone and convert fibrocartilage callus to a bony callus. This joins the broken pieces together. Remodeling is the last step. Osteoblasts build new compact bone and osteoclast absorb the spongy bone and create a new medullary cavity. The use of casts also helps in setting a bone while it is repairing. The cast makes sure that the limb has no movement so it can heal. There are different types of fracture. Below is pictures of the different kinds.

www.heumann.org/body

Bones of the axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and the rib cage. The are many different bone the make up the skull. The skull also referred to as the cranium protects the brain. The major bones of the cranium have the same name as the lobes of the brain. They are the frontal bone(forehead), the parietal bone (sides), occipital bone (back of head), temporal bone (where our ears are), sphenoid bone (floor of cranium), and the ethmoid bone (in front of sphenoid). To understand this better it helps to have a picture.............

www.cartage.org

There are also bone of the face. The mandible(our jaw), zygomatic bones (cheekbones), and the vomer (nose area). All of these bones help protect the brain and give our face its shape. The hyoid bone, which is not part of the skull, can be found in our throat area. The is the only bone that does not articulate with another bone. It is attached to the temporal bone by ligaments and to the larynx by a membrane. The hyoid bone anchors the tongue and serves as the site for the attachment of muscles associated with swallowing. if this bone happens to get broken, it is an indication of strangulation. The vertebral column is responsible for housing the spinal cord and the bone of the column protect the cord. The vertebral column consists of 5 different bone. The cervical bones are in the neck area and there are 7 of them with the first bone being the atlas (holds the head) and the 2nd bone is the axis (helps with turning of the head). The thoracic bones (12bones) which have long spinous processes articulate with the ribs. The lumbar bones (5 bones) have a large body and help with support of the body. The sacral bones (5 bones) are fused with the sacrum. The last bone of the spinal column is the coccyx (tailbone) and is composed of four fused vertebrae.

www.spineuniverse.com

Not shown in this picture is the intervertebral disc which are composed of fibrocartilage that helps cushion the bones. It also prevents grinding of bones together and absorbs shock like when someone is jumping or running. The rib cage helps protect all the organs underneath it. It is composed of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, cartilage, and the sternum. There are 12 pairs of ribs and these articulate with the thoracic bones in the spinal column. The last set of ribs don not attach they are called floating ribs. The sternum is a flat bone that lies in the middle of the chest and where the "true ribs" are attached. The sternum is made up of 3 bones. The manubrium (the handle), the body (the blade), and xiphoid process (the pointy part at the end). The manubrium articulates with the clavicle of the appendicular skeleton and the first pair of ribs.

www.yorku.ca/earmstro/journey/images/sternum

Bones of the appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and their attached limbs. With the pectoral girdle, left and right sides, there is the scapula (shoulder blade), and the clavicle (collarbone). It also consist of the arm bones. The humerus (long bone in arm), radius and ulnar (forearm bones), carpal and metacarpals (bones in hands) and the phalanges (also bones in fingers).

www.dmacc.edu

The muscles of the arm and chest attach to the coracoid process of he scapula. The glenoid cavity of the scapula articulates with the head of the humerus. As seen in this picture there are many bones in the hands, each with their own special name besides carpals. The pelvic girdle and lower limb consists of the pelvis (hip girdle) and the bones of the leg. The pelvis is composed of the sacrum and the coccyx which you can see in the picture above in the vertebral column. There are three parts to the pelvic; the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. The socket that the hip bone fits into is called the acetabulum. We sit on the ischium. The pubis symphysis is where the two pubic bones are joined together by a fibrocartilaginous joint. The leg consists of the femur (long bone), tibia & fibula (calf bones), tarsals and metatarsals (make up the foot), and phalanges (foot bones).

media.wiley.com

On the leg there is also the knee bone which protrudes from your leg and is called the patella. The foot also has other bones besides the tarsals. The ankle bone (talus), and heel bone (calcaneus). These two bones support the weight of the body. All the bones in our body serve a purpose, not only to support our body, but protect our organs, allows movement, and store important minerals. Bones are joined at the joints, which are cartilaginous or synovial. This is what allows our arm and legs to move freely, but there are different types of movement. Our arms can rotate, but our legs can't. Here is a picture of movements that our body allows.....

www.nyu.edu

These are not the only movements that our body allows. There are different movements for hands and feet too. The skeletal system works very closely with the muscular system.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

A. types of muscles & function

B. skeletal muscle of the body

C. muscle fibers and how they slide

D. motor units

E. energy for muscle contraction

F. Fast and Slow twitch muscle fibers

G. common muscular conditions

H. Muscular diseases

There are three types of muscle in the human body; skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle fibers are tubular, multinucleated and striated. They attach to bone. Skeletal muscle is voluntary because we move a part of the body when we want to. Skeletal muscle is responsible for thermoregulation, which maintains our body temperature for our nerves to work properly. It is also responsible for movement, maintains posture, and stabilizing joints. The skeletal muscle assists movement of cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels through pressure gradients. Cardiac muscle is only in the heart (walls of the heart) and it is responsible for pressure gradients and excitatory fibers. It has a single nucleus, striated, tubular, and branched which allows fibers to interlock at intercalated disks. Cardiac muscle is involuntary because we don't have control of its contractions. Smooth muscle is also has a single nucleus and their cells are in a parallel line, forming sheets. It is found within the wall of internal hollow organs. It is involuntary just like cardiac muscle. Here are pictures of the three types of muscles..........

www.nsbri.org

Skeletal muscle is made up of fibers called fascicles. Within the fascicles are fibers that are covered with connective tissue. Skeletal muscles vary in size, shape, and arrangement of fibers. The muscles are covered with fascia which is a form of connective tissue that extends to become a tendon. Skeletal muscles work in pairs. There is an insertion which is the muscle is on the bone that moves and the origin which is the muscle is on a stationary bone. Muscles are responsible for contraction and when the muscle contracts it shorten. There is a primary mover and a synergist (assist the prime mover) when a muscle contracts. How do muscle fibers slide? There are quite a few things that go into the sliding of muscle fiber. Each muscle fiber contains a large number of myofibrils that are composed of sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the basic unit of the contraction and the subunits of myofibrils. The cell membrane is called the sarcolemma and the endoplasmic reticulum is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum (where calcium is stored). The sarcolemma forms the transverse tubules that penetrate into the cell so that they come into contact with the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The myofibrils are bundles of overlapping myosin and actin filaments. There are four proteins of a sarcomere. Myosin is the thick filament protein and actin is the thin filament protein. The next two are troponin and tropomysin and these regulate myosin and actin interaction. There are also two supporting proteins that participate in a muscle contraction; (1) titin is elastic and helps return a stretched sarcomere to resting length;(2) nebulin and it serves to align the actin filaments. Also, there is an organization of a sarcomere; the Zdisks serve as attachment sites for actin filaments; I band (actin only) region occupied only by thin filaments; A band is where overlapping of myosin and actin occurs and encompasses the thick filaments; H Zone (myosin only) ; M Line attachment site for thick filaments

CONTRACTION OF A MUSCLE

Muscle fibers are stimulated to contract by motor neurons whose axons are in nerves. The axon of one neuron can stimulate little or a lot of muscle fibers of a muscle because each axon has different branches. A small gap called a synaptic cleft separates the axon terminal from the sarcolemma. This is known as the neuromuscular junction. Ach (acetylcholine) is a neurotransmitter that is release though the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the sarcolemma. The sarcolemma generates impulses that spread over the sarcolemma and down the T tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Contraction begins when Ca2+ (calcium released from the sacroplasmic reticulum) binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to be pulled towards the groove of actin filaments. This exposes the myosin binding site on actin so that myosin can bind to complete the power stroke. Myosin has a ATPase site so ATP can attach. The myosin head tightly bound to actin molecule. Myosin has two functions end tail and head. ATP binds with the nucleotide binding site inducing change in the myosin head so that it no longer binds with actin. The nucleotide binding site on myosin closes around the ATP and hydrolysis it to ADP & P, both remain bound to myosin. The energy released from ATP rotates the free myosin molecule and it binds weakly to a new actin molecule one or two positions away. The power stroke is initiated when a phosphate is released from the myosin binding site. As myosin moves it pushes the attached actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. The myosin releases ADP and is now tightly bound to the actin. The cycle will repeat with the binding of another ATP. Contraction is regulated by troponin and tropomyosin. In the relaxed state tropomyosin blocks the myosin binding site on actin.

www.wapisch.com

MOTOR UNITS

A motor unit consists of all the muscle fiber innervated by one motor neuron. All fibers of a motor unit respond to a stimulus. The number of muscle fibers per unit ranges from 4 to several 100. Fibers in a unit are spread throughout the entire muscle. The greater the number of fibers contracting the greater the total muscle tension. A single action potential in a muscle fiber produces a brief contraction called a "twitch." With more and more contraction, the more motor units are needed. A muscle twitch is divided into three stages; the latent period which is the time between a stimulus and initiation of contraction; the contraction period is when the muscle shortens; and the relaxing period is when the muscle returns to its normal length. If a motor unit receives multiple stimuli it can respond without relaxing. If a muscle fiber is stimulated so rapidly that it does not have an opportunity to relax at all between stimuli a maximal sustained contraction known as a tetanus occurs. A tetanus continues until the muscle fatigues.

ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Resting muscle stores energy from ATP in high energy phosphate bonds of phosphocreatine. Working muscle transfers energy from phosphocreatine back to ATP. Creatine phosphate is the first energy storehouse tapped into at the onset of contractile activity. Like ATP creatine phosphate contains a high energy phosphate group which can be donated to ADP to form ATP. There are other energy sources for muscle contraction. There are two that are in our blood; glucose and plasma fatty acids. Both of these are delivered through blood circulation. People that exercise to lose weight use up the plasma fatty acids which are adipose tissue (fat) that makes us look fat. When the diet is restricted it uses up the adipose tissue that is stored. Fermentation happens when someone is exercising for a long period of time and feeling a burning sensation, that is the lactate building up. Fermentation also makes the muscle fatigued. While working out most people breath heavy and this is called oxygen debt, which is the bodies way of completing the metabolism of lactate and restore the cells to their original energy state. Fermentation is an anaerobic process.

FAST AND SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBERS

With the fast twitch muscle fibers they are dependent on anaerobic pathways, it does not need oxygen to make ATP. The muscle contracts rapidly and tires easily. Common in upper limbs and less endurance. The slow twitch are aerobic and have thin fibers. the slow twitch fibers have many mitochondria and myoglobin giving it a dark color. Myoglobin is similar to hemoglobin and can store small amounts of oxygen, but more importantly it increases the rate of oxygen transfer from the blood to the muscle fibers.

COMMON MUSCULAR CONDITIONS

I believe that many, if not all people, have suffered from one of these muscular conditions. Spasms are a sudden involuntary contraction of a muscle. They don't last long, but you know they are there. Cramps are strong painful spasms. They can be caused by strenuous exercise or not enough potassium in your diet. A strain is caused by over stretching a muscle. Lastly, a strain is when you twist your ankle and it swells.

MUSCULAR DISEASES

Muscular dystrophy is a progressive disease that affects the muscles. The muscles fibers die and is replaced by fat and connective tissue. Another disease is Duchenne muscular dystrophy and is most common because it is inherited by a gene carried by the mother. A protein called dystrophin causes the condition. When the protein is absent calcium leaks into the cell and activates an enzyme to dissolve muscle fibers.

The skeletal and muscular systems work very closely. They rely on each other. The skeletal system protect our internal organs and the muscular system pads bones.

COMPENDIUM III THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

2008-10-29T19:05:00.001-07:00

www.completehealings.com

Nervous system

a. nervous tissue and functions

b. myelin sheath

c. nerve impulses and propagation of action potentials

d. sodium/potassium pump

e. synapse

f. CNS

g. PNS

h. Effects of substance abuse

SENSES

a. receptors and sensation

b. proprioceptors, cutaneous, and pain receptors

c. sense of taste and smell

d. sense of vision, A & P of vision

e. sense of hearing, A & P of hearing

The Nervous system contains two major regulatory system of the body. There is the Central Nervous System (CNS), and the Peripheral Nervous System(PNS). First I would like to explain nervous tissue and their functions because this is how these systems function properly.

Nervous tissue contains two types of cells; neurons and neuralgia (cells). The neuron plays a significant roll in the Nervous system. There are three parts to a neuron. First there is the cell body which contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles. Next, there is the axon, which conduct impulses away from the cell body. Dendrites are the last part of a neuron. They are responsible for receiving messages from other cells and conducting those impulses towards the cell body.

www.understanding_ocd.tripod.com

There are also three types of neurons and they are classified by their function. Sensory neurons, these neurons are responsible for carrying impulses from the sensory receptors to the Central nervous system. Motor neurons, transmits the impulses or messages from the CNS to a effector muscle or a gland. Effectors carry out our responses to environmental changes, being internal or external. Interneurons, they are only found in the CNS and connect neuron to neuron. They also communicate the messages to the motor neuron, but before they do they sum up the information. Sensory receptors are special structures that detects change in the environment. Neuralgia cells (glia cells) cannot conduct their own action potentials and serve as support cells and help protect neurons.

Myelin Sheath is the protective covering surrounding some axons. The myelin sheath is composed of schwann cells, which are produced in the PNS. The cells wrap themselves around the axon several times. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes are responsible for the myelin sheath. Both of these cells only cover a portion of the axon, leaving exposed areas, which are called Node of Ranvier. Gray matter in the CNS is gray because it does not contain myelinated axons and the white matter in the CNS is white because it does contain myelinated axons. Important note is that if an axon is accidentally severed the myelin sheath remains and serves as a passageway for new fiber growth.

ACTION POTENTIAL

This is a great example of an action potential. I will explain each of these processes that appear in this graph I found online. Action potentials are measured my an voltmeter. Action potentials are the rapid change in polarity across an axonal membrane as the nerve impulse occurs. All of these steps ARE the action potential. I will try and go through each step and how they occur. Resting potential is when the axon is not conducting an impulse or a message. The resting potential usual measures at -65mV (millivolts). When the membrane is stimulated it creates an action potential. POLARIZATION, not seen in this graph charges are separated across the plasma membrane has potential. Anytime the value of the membrane potential is other than )mV in either positive or negative direction the membrane is in the state of polarization. When DEPOLARIZATION occurs a change its the potential that makes the membrane less polarized (less negative,inside) than at resting potential. Depolarization decreases membrane potential moving it closer to 0mV. Notice the graph above. With REPOLARIZATION, the membrane returns to resting potential after having been depolarized. HYPERPOLARIZATION, is a change in potential that makes the membrane more polarized (more negative) then at resting potential. It increases membrane potential moving it even farther from 0mV. All of these actions are controlled by voltage gates and the sodium potassium pump. These gates open and close allowing ions (sodium and potassium) into and out of the cell. The sodium gates open first when an action potential occurs and Na+ (sodium) flows into the axon. When it moves inside it changes the membrane potential from negative to positive. The potassium (K+) gates second and the potassium flows out changing the membrane potential. The sodium-potassium pump is very important when it comes to balance. Both of these ions are very important in homeostasis!!!!

www.upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons

Propagation of an action potential. I found this great animation online showing the action potential. When the axon is unmyelinated the action potential at one location stimulates an adjacent part of the axons membrane to produce a action potential. In myelinated axon there are bare spots on the axon itself (node of Ranvier) that speeds up the action potential. This is called a saltatory conduction. The nerve impulse actually jumps from node to node. After a stimulus of an action potential occurs, it goes through a refractory period. This is when the patch of membrane that has just been stimulated it becomes unresponsive to further stimulus and prevents an action potential from spreading backwards into the area through which it just passed. An action potential is an all-or-none event!!!

SYNAPSES

A synapse is actually a junction between a nerve cell and another cell. Action potentials are propagated from the axon hillock to the axon terminal. The axon hillock is the first portion of the axon where the action potential takes place then it makes its way down the axon to the axon terminals. At the synapse, there is a small gap called the synaptic cleft, this area is actually to wide for the direct spread of a current from one cell to another. It prevents action potential from electrically passing between neurons. Synapse only work in one direction. Neurotransmitters carry the signal across the synapse. The neurotransmitters are stored in the axon terminals.

www.content.answers.com/

STEPS IN THE SYNAPSE

1. When an action potential in a presynaptic neuron has been propagated to the axon terminal, this change in potential triggers the opening of the Ca+ (calcium) gate channel in the synaptic knob.

2. The calcium ions flow through the opened channels

3. Calcium allows the release of a neurotransmitter from some of the synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.

4. The released neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and binds with protein receptor sites.

5. The binding triggers the opening of specific ion channels, changing the ion permeability of the postsynaptic neuron.

6. Once the neurotransmitter has been released and initiated a response, it is removed from the cleft.

Some synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory. With the excitatory synapse the response to the binding of a neurotransmitter to the receptor is the opening of nonspecific channels and permit passage of sodium. With inhibitory synapse it would allow the passage of potassium to enter the neuron. Sometime a neurotransmitter can be inactivated due to an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. This particular enzyme breaks down acetylcholine. Some neurotransmitters are reabsorbed for reuse. There are different types of neurotransmitter molecules. One example, is acetylcholine and norepinephrine. These two are seen in the CNS and the PNS. Norepinephrine excites smooth muscle.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

www.medem.com/MEDEM/images

The central Nervous System consists of the spinal cord and brain. The brain is where the sensory input is received and then sent to the motor control for initiating. The brain and spinal cord are protected, not only by bone, but other important membranes. Underneath the bone are the meninges and the spaces between these meninges is cerebral spinal fluid which cushions and protects the organs they hold. There are three layers to the meninges. The first layer is the PIA MATER (delicate mother) and this layer is vascular and shares blood supply with the underlying nerve tissue. The second layer is the ARACHNOID MATER and this protects the brain. It also resembles a spider web, contains cerebrospinal fluid and is impermeable. The third layer is the DURA MATER (tough mother) and is functionally important because it reduces the risk of abrasion of the inner layer and the central nervous system. The brain also has four ventricles which are interconnecting chambers that produce and serve as a reservoir for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This reservoir is very important because it drains the excess CSF into the cardiovascular system. If it is not drained, with a child it can cause hydrocephalus which is water on the brain and in an adult the extra fluid has no where to go because the adult brain is larger then a child's that is still developing. The CNS is composed of two types of nervous tissue; GRAY MATTER and WHITE MATTER. The Gray matter is mostly cell bodies,dendrites and terminals, is the spinal reflex integrating center and consists of sensory and motor nuclei. The White matter have bundles of myelianted axons and run along tracts. These are ascending tracts with sensory to dorsal (the back) root that carry info to the brain. The descending tracts are motor to ventral (the front) roots and carry commands to motor neurons. The spinal cord is on the dorsal side of the body and extends from the base of the brain through the foramen magnum and the vertebral column. The bones in the vertebra protect the spinal cord. The spinal cord plays a key role in communication between the brain and the peripheral nerves.

www.serious-injury-lawyers.org

The spinal cord is the location where reflex arc happens. An example of a reflex arc would be a painful stimulus. When this happens it sends a signal to the brain through the afferent pathway, which then propagates the electrical signal. Then once the afferent neuron enters the spinal cord it diverges or spreads and terminates on three different types of internuerons; (1) excitatory interneurons which will in turn stimulate the efferent motor neurons to the site where the pain was felt and pull it away from the stimulus (2) inhibitory interneurons will inhibit the efferent motor neuron to the site of the pain and preventing counterproductive contraction of this muscle and (3) interneurons that carry the signal up the spinal cord via the ascending pathway to the brain for awareness of pain and memory storage. Before I move on I would like to point out some portions of the brain. The cerebrum, (telencephalon) is the largest portion of the brain and is located in the frontal lobe, which is the forehead area. The cerebrum is the last area that receives sensory input. The cerebrum is responsible for reasoning and thought. It has two parts to it and is called the cerebral hemisphere. It is further divided into left and right. Each of these hemispheres are divided into four lobes; frontal,parietal, temporal, and occipital. The cerebral cortex plays a key role in the most sphicated neural functions such as, voluntary initiation of movement, final sensory perception, conscious thought, language and personality traits. The cortex contains both sensory and motor areas. Another interesting fact about the cortex is where language is associated. the Wernicke's area and Broca's area. The Wernicke's area helps us understand written and spoken language and then sends info to the Broca's area. The Broca's area stimulates the right muscles for speaking and writing. The hypothalamus and thalamus are located in the dienephalon, which is in the third ventricle. The hypothalamus is associated with the pituitary gland and controls body temp, urine output, uterine contractions and is the thalamus receive sensory input except smell. The cerebellum lies in the occipital lobe (vision) and is actually separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination of muscles, balance, posture and muscle tone. The medulla oblongata is very important because it is responsible for heart beat, breathing, coughing, sneezing, and blood pressure.

LIMBIC SYSTEM

The Limbic system is involved with our emotions and motivations.particularly those that are related to survival. Such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related to sexual behavior. The limbic system is also involved in feelings of pleasure that are related to our survival, such as those experienced from eating and sex. There are two significant structures in the Limbic System they are the amygdala and the hippocampus. The amygdala is involved in emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory. It can use past knowledge to assess a current situation. The hippocampus is responsible for sending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. Also, plays a key role in learning and memory. There are different types of memory; short term, long term, semantic, and episodic.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The PNS contains the nerves which lie in the spinal cord. We have 12 pairs of cranial nerves. They all serve a different purpose; mainly the head, neck and facial region. We also have 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The PNS consists of nerves that transmit info to the and from the CNS. Sensory(afferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses towards the CNS. Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses away from the CNS towards the effector organs such as muscles or glands. The PNS also has divisions; The autonomic which divides further into the sympathetic and parasympathetic and then the somatic system. The nerves in the somatic system serve the skin, skeletal muscles and tendons. The autonomic systems with its two divisions are interesting. Here is a great picture separating the the two systems and their actions to stimulus:

www.biocomtech.com

As you can see in the picture above these two divisions of the autonomic system have opposite effects to certain forms of stimulus. The parasympathetic slows things down, and the sympathetic speeds things up. Also, in this picture you can see the nerve that innervates these reactions and parts of the brain where it is happening.

EFFECTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

When you think of substance abuse some just think of heroin or pot, but there are so many (more today) "substances" out there that can effect your brain function and even damage brain cells. Alcohol is a drug that is accepted worldwide. There are a lot of people who abuse alcohol and is known to have harmful effects on the body and the brain. Not only does it effect the brain, but it can damage the liver and lead to death. The liver acts as a filter and gets rid of the bad stuff, but drinking alcohol excessively can damage that part that is so important. Alcohol also impairs our thinking, reasoning, and coordination. Alcohol is a depressant and slows down your respirations which can lead to death. some people can consume to much alcohol (effecting the CNS) and get alcohol poisoning. Another drug that people may not even consider a drug is nicotine. Nicotine has effect on the CNS and the PNS. With the CNS it binds to neurons within the CNS and dopamine is released. Dopamine will increase your heart rate and blood pressure. This constant effect will damage your heart. Another drug is methamphetamine. This is extremely dangerous because some people create meth labs which contain explosive stuff. Meth, as it is called, when smoked can keep the person awake for days. This obviously can be detrimental to the human body. There are a lot of drugs in the world today that can be deadly. The list can go on forever. I am sure I haven't heard all of them.

SENSES

RECEPTORS AND SENSATIONS

There are different types of receptors. First there is sensory receptors and these are familiar because of the nervous system. The sensory receptors are dendrites that detect certain types of stimuli. Exteroceptors are ones that detect stimuli form the outside of the body, such as taste and smell. Interoceptors receive stimuli from the inside of our bodies. Examples of interoceptors are pressorecptors which respond to changes in blood pressure. Osmoreceptors detect change in the water-salt balance and chemoreceptors monitor the pH of the blood. Interoceptors are directly involved with homeostasis!

TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS

Chemoreceptors have to do with chemicals. As you can see by there name; "chemo" They are sensitive to specific chemicals, they include the receptors for smell and taste and as well as those located deeper within the body that detect oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood or the chemical content in the GI system

Pain receptors (nociceptors) are sensitive to tissue damage such as pinching or burning. They make us aware of possible danger.

Photoreceptors are responsible for vision. The visible wavelengths of light. The photoreceptors can be found in our eyes.

Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical energy. One example is the skeletal muscle is sensitive to stretching or the ear containing fine hair cells for hearing are bent due to sound waves.

Thermoreceptors are sensitive to heat and cold.

Sensations involve the sensory receptors because it is a response to the sensation that makes the receptors to respond. When the nerve impulses arrive at the cerebral cortex of the brain, sensation which is the conscious perception of stimuli occurs. Above I explained the reflex arc and this is exactly like that. The great example of sensing pain which in turn will alert the response of pulling away from it.

PROPRIOCEPTORS, CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS, PAIN RECEPTORS

Proprioceptors are responsible for knowing the position of our limbs in space by detecting the degree of muscle relaxation, stretch and movement. The cutaneous receptors are in our skin. It is in the deep within the dermis layer. These receptors are responsible for alerting us of touch, pressure, pain, or temperature. Pain receptors alert us of pain, whether it be internal or external.

SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL

Taste and smell are chemoreceptors because they are sensitive to foods we eat and the air we breathe. Sense of taste is due to the "taste buds" on our tongue. The tongue is divided up making certain areas responsible for sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. These four are common, but there is another called umami which may exist for certain flavors such as cheese, beef broth and some seafood. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the interpretation of particular tastes. The olfactory cells in our noses is responsible for the sense of smell and what we perceive as taste is due to smell. There are different kinds of odor molecules and attracts a combination of receptor proteins. Stimulates different combination with different odors.

SENSES OF VISION, A & P

www.eyesareus.org/web/eyesareus.org

In order for us to see it requires the help of the brain. There is a optic nerve which sends a message to the brain. This picture above shows the human eye and all the things that are involved. I will explain each of the components of the eye. There are three specialized tissue layers. The sclera, which is the white part of the eye along with the cornea (is not white), the choroid/ciliary body, iris are the middle layer underneath the slcera; the choiroid layer becomes specialized to form the ciliary body and the iris, and the retina which is the innermost layer. Between the lens and the retina there is a semi-fluid the vitreous humor and is important in maintaining the spherical shape of the eyeball. Between the cornea and lens contains a clear watery fluid the Aqueous humor and this carries nutrients for the cornea and lens both of which lack blood supply. Also the aqueous humor is produced by a capillary network within the ciliary body and if it is not drained it could block drainage canals. The round opening in the center of the iris is the pupil, which constricts or dilates to adjust to light. The iris is responsible for controlling the amount of light entering the eye and regulates the size of the pupil. Sensory tunic (retina) contain rod and cones. Rods make you see black and white and cones provide colors. Signals pass from photoreceptors and leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve transduction. The fovea centralis is the area of the retina with only cones. There are three types of cones that detect different colors (green,red,blue) and if you lack one type it causes colorblindness. The blind spot is located at the optic disc. When trying to focus (when looking at something), there are two things that are happening with the cornea and the lens. Rays from light more then 20ft away are considered parallel by the time they reach the eye. From near objects the light is still diverging (radiating outward) when they reach the eye. Accommodation increases the strength of the lens for near vision. The function of the photoreceptors is the rod and cones. The rods contain a pigment which is purple called, rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is a molecule made up of protein opsin and a light absorbing molecule called retinal. When a rod absorbs light rhdopsin splits into opsin and retinal. Rods are suited to night vision. The retina contains ganglion and bipolar cells. The ganglion cell axons go to the optic nerve. Start of an action potential cones out the way light came in. Light enters the retina on the side containing the optic nerves and travels through all the layer before reaching the receptors. The optic nerve lacks receptors. A visual pathway to the cerebral cortex------>begins at the retina------>light activates photoreceptors----->photoreceptors signal bipolar cell-----> bipolar cell signal ganglion cell--------> axons of ganglion cell exit the eye as the optic nerve. There are disorders with the eyes.

SENSES OF HEARING, A & P

https://www.lpch.org/photos

The ear is not only for hearing, but it involves our balance (equilibrium) too. This is a picture of the outside of the ear as well as the inside. I will start with the outer ear. The outer is composed of the auricle (earlobe) and that helps direct sound. External auditory meatus (entrance to inner ear) is lined with skin, contains hairs, sebeous glands and ceruminous fluid (earwax). The tympanic membrane forms the boundary between the external and middle ear. The middle ear consists of the tympanic cavity a small air filled space located within the temporal bone. Medial wall contains oval window membrane where the stapes (bone) is attached. The round window another small membrane covering the opening seals the lower compartment from the middle ear. Pharyngotympanic tube or Eustachian tube links the middle ear to the pharynx. These are normally collapsed but if you yawn they will open. The ear ossicles are in the middle ear and they are the stapes (vibrates against the oval window), malleus (attach to eardrum), and the incus (between the malleus and stapes. The inner ear also called the labyrinth (maze) lies within the temporal bone. bony labyrinth is a cavity consisting of 3 parts; (1) the semicircular canals which functions in orientation eg., gravity), (2) vestibule conducts sound waves (3) cochlea-contains receptor hairs, also the hearing portion of the ear. The membranous labyrinth fits within the bony labyrinth and also has 3 parts; (1) semicircular ducts-ampulla houses a structure call a crista ampullaris and these contain receptor cell of rotational acceleration, (2) utricle and saccule these are suspended in the perilymph and are otolith organs (provide info about the position of the head), (3) cochlea duct the middle ear compartment tunnels through the center of the cochlea. The organ of Corti is responsible for hearing. The process of hearing starts with sound waves that travel. hearing reception------>sound vibration----->tectorial membrane movement---->bends sterocillia--->stimulates electrical response-------->fires synapses-------->auditory axons carry signals. If your tectorial membrane is damaged you will lose your hearing. The vestibular nerve helps us maintain our equilibrium. All of our senses are very delicate. With having a lot of "tiny parts", if one tiny piece is missing then those senses don't work properly.

SELF EVALUATION UNIT II

2008-10-15T19:03:00.001-07:00

The things about Unit II that I am most proud of was my lab project until I posted it. It looked great before I uploaded it!!! I am also happy that I completed all the assignments. That is always a great accomplishment when things are done!! The last thing I am proud of is that you can actually see all of my pictures and don't have to put your nose to the screen.

Would I make any improvements?? Umm, sure there is always room for improvement. I will always say that I have a hard time putting things into words, but I do my best. I am still trying to get use to the "blog" thing and I will probably have it mastered right before this class ends!!

My overall grade should reflect the quality of my work. I believe with completing the assignments shows that I care about the dead line and want it to be right! I think I put a lot of effort into any work I do, so I guess I feel deserving of a good grade.

In the next unit I could do better by reading the lab project thoroughly before I start it. I didn't think that this one was going to be a lot of work, but it was. The one on the first unit was too, but being in the medical field I saw that we had to do blood pressure and stuff like that so I wasn't really concerned.

I felt most engaged with the circulatory system. I think that it is so fascinating!! Actually all of the chapters were great. Genetics is not my thing but getting into the systems in the body is what I enjoy the most.

I don't think I ever felt distanced from the course because I am busy trying to get the work done. I get nervous knowing the due date is around the corner.

What I found helpful in this particular unit was all the extra web sites that the instructor made available. It is always helpful to have more information.

I didn't find anything puzzling. I think Unit II was a great refresher for me!

The thing that surprised me about this Unit was doing the lab exercise. I have been working out since I was in my teens and when I saw some of the blood pressure and pulses readings it made me a little nervous. My blood pressure has always been great. When I did some of the exercises and then took my blood pressure and pulse, I was surprised how high they were. I know when we did stress test in the doctors office I worked in the patient had to reach a certain target rate(pulse) for their age. I think during my lab project my pulse was a little too high.

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY PROJECT UNIT II

2008-10-15T18:00:00.001-07:00

WWW.howstuffworks.com/gif/adam/images/en/1

This lab project is to see how my blood pressure, pulse, and respirations are affected by doing physical activities. I chose physical activities because I try to exercise at least four times a week.

I have chosen running around my house for the first exercise assignment. I am literally running outside around my house. For this exercise, I will run around my house once, then come in and take my measurements. I know that my metabolic measurements will go up because this exercise is physical. When you exercise, your heart rate goes up, so with my heart rate up, that makes the heart beat faster, and forcing blood through faster. The blood moving faster through my heart will make my blood pressure go up. The heart has to work harder then at rest. With the repetition of running around my house, (resting in between, through the course of the day) I believe that my measurement will go up, but that they may stay the same with each repetition. While resting, my measurements should come back to, or close to my baseline, I am not sure how long this takes, but I guess about a half hour.

For the second exercise, I chose to lift weights. This is a tuff one, but I believe that my metabolic measurements will go up slightly. With the repetition of doing this three times through the course of the day I will increase the number of time I lift them. For the first repetition I will do four sets of 6 reps (arms), for the second, I will do six sets of 6 reps, and for the last one I will do eight sets of 6 reps. I know that my measurements will go up, but it won't be as drastic as running around my house. After I rest, I believe that my measurements will return to my baseline. Lifting weights is physical, but not as physical as running. My recover for my measurements should take about a half hour.

For the third exercise, I have a manual treadmill that I will walk on. First for 30 seconds (not easy to move)!!! Second, I will do one minute and the third I will do a minute and a half. My treadmill is not electric so it is very hard to move so I know that my measurements will go up. The one for 30 seconds will not affect my measurements to much, but the next two will. I will also rest in between these reps. My measurements should go back to baseline. I am not sure how quickly your measurements recover for activity, but I believe it should take about a half hour to 45 minutes?!

Pics

This is a picture of my digital blood pressure machine and a watch to take my pulse and respirations.

This is me taking my blood pressure

The reading of my systolic and diastolic. This machine also takes my pulses, but I used my fingers and a watch.

This is me taking my pulse

This is my manual treadmill and on it is the sneakers I used to run around my house and the weights that I used for my 2nd activity.

As for my hypothesis I think I was very close to what I imagined. With my first exercise, running, my measurements went up drastically. Kind of scared me! My second activity, weights, I said that they would go up slightly and they did. The respirations went up the most. As for the third activity, the treadmill, all the measurements went up. The first reading only went up slightly because I was only on the treadmill for 30 seconds.

Here are my graphs.........

Below is a preview of your graph. To edit your graph Click here...

I tried to put the metabolic table that you provided, but it would not cut and paste. So I tried my best.

METABOLIC RATE DATA TABLE

Repetition 1    Rep 2    Rep 3    Rep 4    Rep 5                                            Means
Baseline    resting    resting    resting    resting    resting
PULSE
68    66    66    64    66    70                                                                             66.4

RESPIRATION
20    18    18    20    18    18                                                                              18.4
SYSTOLIC
108    106    111    111    102    96                                                                    105.2
DIASTOLIC
78    65    70    72    65    59                                                                               66.2
Activity 1    Running
PULSE
68    119    88    101                                                                                          102.6
RESPIRATIONS
29    26    24    26                                                                                                25.3
SYSTOLIC
108    137    151    149                                                                                       145.6
DIASTOLIC
78    88    91    104                                                                                              94.3
Activity 2    Weights 4 sets    6 sets    8 sets
PULSE
68    86    80    84                                                                                                 83.3
RESPIRATIONS
20    18    28    28                                                                                                 24.6
SYSTOLIC
108    115    112    107                                                                                         111.3
DIASTOLIC
78    76    70    63                                                                                                  69.9
Activity 3    Treadmill 30sec    1 min    1.5 min
PULSE
68    93    127    125                                                                                                115
RESPIRATIONS
20    22    28    30                                                                                                    26.6
SYSTOLIC
108    108    128    135                                                                                            123.6
DIASTOLIC
78    78    82    85                                                                                                     81.6

ETHICAL ISSUE UNIT II WHAT IS FOOD?!

2008-10-15T09:15:00.001-07:00

The picture above represents what all the doctors, the media,the FDA, etc. say we should eat! This pyramid was created by the FDA to let people know the food groups that are important in our diets. So why don't people follow this so called guideline?!! Well, what about single mothers or fathers struggling to make ends meet and putting healthy food on the table. Not an easy task!! The only thing they can afford is the processed food, packaged foods, and what ever else is on sale. Things like, Kraft macaroni and cheese on sale for......6 boxes for a 1.00 or hamburger helper two boxes for 5.00. These two examples are horrible for you. Sure people could buy produce for salads, and a bunch of fruit, but their dollar stretches a lot further with the foods I just mentioned. Healthy food is more expensive!! Isn't is sad "they" say eat healthy, but yet a lot people can't afford to do that. They wonder why obesity is on the rise in Americans, especially in children. Type II diabetes is becoming common in children and that is scary to me!! The more expensive foods I am talking about is organic foods because they are the safest and don't contain any chemicals. Understandably, it "may" cost more to produce organic foods, but if they sold it at a reasonable price they may sell a lot more because people could afford it.

I get so sick and tired of hearing what the media has to say about what you should and should not be eating, what is healthy, what causes cancer, and on and on. I am sure a lot of people would agree with me. The stress of trying to eat right is frustrating.

I grew up with a single parent. My mother worked three jobs while supporting six children. As you can imagine, we ate a lot of macaroni and cheese and a lot of stuff out of a can because my mother wasn't home to cook that much. So as I was growing up I was a chunky kid, but again as being a teen, peer pressure and the media once again step in and remind you to eat right, stay slim. Nutrition is very important for children because it helps them grow probably. Children that suffer from malnutrition have stunted growth, abnormal abdomens, and are very weak! How about school lunches? You have probably seen in the news that some schools are trying to change the menus and make them more healthy, but for now most of the lunches have fried foods, hamburgers, or pizza. I am not saying having these are bad for children, what I am saying is moderation is the key!!! Anything in access is not good for you.

I really enjoyed the "farm to school online. What a great idea!!! Not only will the children be eating right, they can learn how to grow their own stuff at home. How rewarding is that!!! I eventually, because of my older sister, started growing my own vegetables, herbs, and flowers. There is nothing like bringing your produce to your table!! Since moving to Arizona from RI I have not had the chance to grow anything because I have only been here for 4 months, but I have visited a lot of the nurseries! It really is amazing what you can do with ONE seed!

As for thinking of ways to solve obesity or nutrition problems, I really think it comes down to affordability. Some people are raised with poor nutrition, but the media is always there to remind you what you should be eating and lets not forget exercise. I think people have to start making healthier choices too.

COMPENDIUM UNIT II

2008-10-13T21:11:00.001-07:00

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM & NUTIRTION

WWW.apps.uwhealth.org

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

a. Overview

b. wall of the digestive tract

c. where digestion begins and ends

d. complications with poor nutrition

e. disorders of the liver, colon

NUTRIRION

a. weight control, obesity

b. nutrients and vitamins

c. food guide pyramid

d. eating disorders

I think the digestive system is one of the more interesting system in our bodies. The digestive system consists of many organs working together. The digestive system is also referred to as the GI tract (gastrointestinal tract). It starts with the mouth because this is where ingestion begins. Our mouths contain saliva and enzymes that help, along with our teeth, break down food and turn it into a bolus. The bolus is a soft ball of broken down food that can be easily swallowed. This might also be considered digestion because of the breakdown of food. All parts of the digestive tract contains digestive enzymes that hydrolyze foods to molecular nutrients for our bodies to absorb. The GI tract has three main functions; movement, this is due to peristalsis. Peristalsis is involuntary muscle at work. Food must has to pass along form organ to organ and peristalsis makes that happen. Another function of the GI tract is absorption, this happens when the food has been broken down into molecules and can be absorbed by the body. The third function is elimination; the molecules that can not be digested are eliminated form our bodies by defecation.

Wall of the digestive tract

The digestive tract is made up of long tube and starts with the mouth and ends with the anus. This tube is made up of layers. It starts with the mucosa or mucous membrane. This is responsible for secreting mucous and protecting the wall for the digestive enzymes. The second layer of the tract wall is submucoa. This layer contain connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. Theses vessels carry the nutrients absorbed by the mucosa. The third layer is the muscularis and is made up of smooth muscle. This covers the tube by crossing over it and running along side of it. The fourth layer, is the serosa layer which secretes serous fluid.

www.mednote.co.kr/images/stomach.gif

Where digestion begins and ends

Digestion, as I said above, really begins in the mouth because this is where we start to break down the food with our saliva and enzymes. Or as the the book says the mechanical and chemical digestion. Our saliva is created by the salivary glands in our mouths. When we start to chew food the salivary glands are activated and the glands release saliva through ducts. The saliva is made up of mucous and water and contains an enzyme call salivary amylase. This particular enzyme speeds up the breakdown of food. Our teeth and tongue play a role in digestion. Obviously, the teeth help cut and chop the food, but the tongue helps with chewing and swallowing the bolus that is created after you have chewed the food enough. The tongue also contain our taste buds. The swallowing of food involves the pharynx and the esophagus. When we swallow, food enters the esophagus, but a lot of other stuff is happening while you are swallowing. This takes probably a split second. The soft palate is in our mouths, moves back to close off the nasal passages, and the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis. The glottis is the opening to the larynx (voice box)and serves as our airway. Everyday people choke or think that the food went down the wrong pipe, well this possible. It can go into our nasal cavities or into the trachea. Sometimes, food can be aspirated and go into the lungs. I talked about peristalsis in the beginning of my compendium because this is really how food goes through all the organs and even when defecation takes place. The bolus continues thru the esophagus on its way to the stomach. As the bolus makes it way to the stomach, it encounters a sphincter. The is called the gastroesophageal sphincter. Sphincters are muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves; they close when contracted and open when relaxed. Similar to the heart valves. When the sphincter is relaxed it allows the bolus to pass through into the stomach. When the bolus enters the stomach (which has a high acidic of 2 due to hydrochloric acid) it continues with digestion. The stomach also has layers like the GI tract, and the mucosa layer has millions of gastric glands that produce gastric juices that help with more breakdown of the bolus into proteins. These gastric juices contain an enzyme called pepsin that digests proteins. When food leave the stomach it is turned into a thick liquid, called chyme. Chyme enters the small intestines slowly, not all at once. The chyme enter the small intestines through another sphincter called, pyloric sphincter and this allows the small amounts of chyme to enter at a time. Digestion is completed in the small intestines. Here, in the small intestines are different enzymes to digest all types of food. The enzymes are secreted by the pancreas, liver and gallbladder. These three organs are the accessory organs working with digestive system that release their enzymes. We will start with the pancreas, most pancreatic cells release pancreatic juices which enter the duodenum (the beginning of the small intestine). The pancreatic juices contain sodium bicarbonate and enzymes. Pancreatic amylase digests starch, Trypsin digests protein, and Lipase digests fats. The pancreatic enzymes I just named begins and an intestinal enzyme finishes the digestion of carbohydrates to glucose. Glucose is our bodies main source of energy when broken down. The liver filters our blood, but when it comes to digestion the liver make plasma proteins that helps regulate cholesterol in the blood. It produces bile salts that are made from cholesterol. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and is released during digestion. Bile emulsifies fats and that is when it breaks up fat droplet into water. Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestines. The mucosa is modified for absorption. The mucosa contains tiny projections called villi with extensions called microvilli which increases the surface area of the small intestines and helps with the absorption of nutrients. What ever can not be ingested in the small intestines is passed into the large intestine. The main function of the large intestine is absorb water, which helps form feces. Not enough water absorbed, dehydration can occur. The large intestines consists of the cecum (a blind sac), the colon, rectum and the anus. The colon includes the transverse colon (across the abdomen), the ascending colon (traveling up), and the descending colon (goes down). The large intestines also absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria. The large intestine is feces is formed. Ridding the body of feces is another way to maintain homeostasis!

Complications with nutrition

Some people from lactose intolerance. This is when people do not have the enzyme lactase that digest lactose. There are alternatives for these people because there are products that are made just for the disorder. Also, people with lactose intolerance can eat some diary like cheese and yogurt because the lactose has already been broken down for them. This disorder can cause abdominal cramps, gas and bloating. Another complication, which is much more serious is Diabetes. To much sugar and fat can lead to obesity, which in turn can lead to diabetes 2 and cardiovascular disease. It is stressed in everyday life to eat healthy, meaning eating a lot of fruit, veggies, and lean meats. Balance is really what is about. Wanting a treat once and while is not a bad thing!

Disorders of the liver and colon

You can almost look at person and know that they have some kind of liver disorder because the whites of the eyes and the skin can become jaundice. Jaundice is when bile (stored in the gallbladder, made by the liver) secretes into the blood. One disorder that go along with jaundice is Hepatitis. There are different kinds of hepatitis. There is Hep A which is contracted through the oral-fecal route, Hep B & C are sexually transmitted or body fluids, especially blood. Another disorder of the liver is cirrhosis, which is said to be caused by alcohol abuse. The liver becomes very fatty and the liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue, making it hard for the liver to function properly. It was thought that only alcohol was the cause of cirrhosis, but now is being related to people who are obese. People that are obese tend to eat a lot of fatty foods. The liver is a vital organ, one humans cannot live without. The colon disorders can be very debilitating. Disorders that are common and I believe everyone has suffered from are diarrhea, which is caused by an infection of the lower intestinal tract and nervous stimulation. ie., food poisoning can cause the intestinal wall to be irritated and peristalsis increases. Water is not absorbed as it should be, causing diarrhea. Another common disorder is constipation. The feces are hard to pass thru the anus. This is usually caused by people avoiding going to the bathroom. The one disorder I think can be debilitating is Crohn's disease. My sister has Crohn's and some days she cannot function normally and needs to stay home (alot). Crohn's disease is considered and inflammatory bowel disease and sometimes people can get ulcers in their colons, and that can cause bleeding. some people can hemorrhage (bleed to death).

NUTRITION

Weight control, obesity

Obesity is defined by a persons body mass index (BMI). This is actually taking how much you weigh with your height and see where you fall on the BMI chart. The chart below shows what is healthy and what is considered obese.

www.dietriffic.com

Obesity is on the rise in Americans and especially the children. Obesity leads to deadly disorders and diseases.

Nutrients and Vitamins

Nutrients are described as a component of food that performs a physiological function in the body. They provide us with energy, promotes growth and development and regulate cellular metabolism.

Carbohydrates can be simple or complex. Glucose is our #1 source for energy needs and is considered a simple sugar. Carbs are very important to our diets. Complex carbs are broken down into glucose for the use of our bodies. Fats should be included, but in low quantities. Refined foods are the worst for someone diet if too many are consumed. Protein is very important in our diets!!! You can find protein in lean meats, fish, beans, eggs, and on and on. The amino acids in the proteins are what are important for our bodes. All 20 amino acids are needed. The absence of one amino acid can cause the not to work right. Too much red meat is not good for the body because of the high saturated fats. Lipids are fats, oils, and cholesterol. all of which sound bad for you, but if you consume the right kinds and some in moderation it should be fine. I learned that some oils are really bad and others are good for you. One example is the canola, and safflower oils contain polyunsaturated fatty acids which are essential because our bodies don't make. the acids are linoleic and linolenic acids. Some oils are high in saturated fats and that is not good for us. Vitamins are organic compounds that the body uses for metabolic needs. Some vitamins are produce in our bodies and others are taken as a supplement. I believe a lot of people take vitamins to make sure they get the ones that they need because not all of us follow a strict day in and day out diet. A lack of vitamin D can cause ricketts, this is when the bones are deformed and the person look bone legged. Vitamin D is very important to our diet because it helps absorb calcium.

Eating disorders

These can cause a lot of damage to your organs and even death. One example is anorexia when a person literally starves themselves because they have a poor boy image. They damage their organs because their body is not getting the vital nutrients it needs to survive! They are extremely thin, some you can actually see their bones. Bulimia nervosa is another eating disorder is when the person eats a lot of food and the makes themselves vomit. They do this more then once in a day!! They look like average people, unlike people suffering from anorexia.

Conclusion

The systems covered in this unit were interesting. I found it fascinating how things work.

A DAY OF FOOD

2008-10-12T21:15:00.001-07:00

my profile
my plate
my calorie goals
my weight
my weight goals
preferences

MyPlate

You may eat about 1,011 additional calories today.

Daily Water
Consumption

6 glasses
(8oz)

Charts: Calorie breakdown | Calories over time | Exercise breakdown

Gold members: Custom nutrition label | Week-At-a-Glance view

What I've eaten: - Choose a Day - October 12th, 2008Want to track foods for a date that's not listed?

Food Item
Servings
Cals
Fat
Cholest
Sodium
Carbs
Sugars
Fiber
Protein

bagel with cream cheese
1.00
259
10g
28mg
0mg
33g
0g
0g
8g
x

^ Servings consumed:
Serving size: 1 bagel

Optional: When did you eat this? - select mealtime - breakfast morning

Chicken And Yellow Rice
1.00
50
2g
0mg
0mg
4g
0g
0g
0g
x

^ Servings consumed:
Serving size: 1oz

Optional: When did you eat this? - select mealtime - lunch afternoon -

Pasta with Meatballs and Sauce
1.00
680
19g
84mg
1,728mg
99g
0g
0g
28g
x

^ Servings consumed:
Serving size: 1 entree / 19.5 oz

Optional: When did you eat this? - select mealtime - dinner evening

Fitness
Minutes
Calories Burned
Distance
Heart Rate

Add your physical activity/exercise for October 12th, 2008!

Click totals for charts!
Totals:
989         CALORIES
31g          FAT
112mg     CHOLESTEROL
1,728mg SODIUM
135g       CARBS
0g           SUGARS
0g           FIBER
36g         PROTEIN

% of your daily value
49.45%
47.15%
37.42%
72.01%
45.13%
n/a
n/a
71.26%

Total cals:
989
Net cals:
989
view details

Recent consumption totals:

Cals
Fat
Cholest
Sodium
Carbs
Sugars
Fiber
Protein

This week:
SUNDAY

Well, I guess I didn't do to badly!! It said I had over a 1000 calories that I could still consume, but I didn't need any more to eat. I think that my diet is pretty healthy. I don't usually eat bagels, but they were getting stale so that's what I had for breakfast. As for lunch, I had leftovers from the night before. A half of chicken breast and rice. I believe these are two healthy choices. I eat a lot of chicken and it is coming out of my ears. I don't eat hamburger anymore because I switched to turkey. I have turkey burgers instead and they are really good!! For dinner I made a homemade sauce and put it over rigatoni. There's nothing like a homemade sauce, cooking all day!!! I would change eating the bagel, but like I said it was getting stale and I hate to waste food when there are millions of people going without! I think this exercise was interesting and I will probably use the nutritional tracking again, except on those days when I love to graze!!!

BLOOD PRESSURE LAB UNIT II

2008-10-12T20:27:00.001-07:00

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

With the male patients their systolic pressure seems to increase with age and their diastolic remains study until the ages 35-44 there there is an increase. As for the female patients, the blood pressures (systolic and diastolic) seems to stay at a steady pace, but increase between the ages of 44-54. I know that this increase is due to menopause.

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

With aging the heart and circulatory system do not work as well as they do when you are younger. This is due to the arteries becoming less elastic, there is narrowing and the heart muscle has to work harder to pump blood, making your blood pressure higher. With the data that I have collected, it would seem to me that males are at greater risk for high blood pressure the females.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

I would take one person, male and female, from each age group and then do a comparison over a period of time to see who is actually at risk for high blood pressure. I would take their blood pressure's weekly to use for comparison. I would do an average systolic and diastolic because the age groups vary. I would record their blood pressures and see how it rises or falls. Many things can effect blood pressure besides age. Anger, pain, and many other things can increase the blood pressure. Also, medications can lower blood pressure. These would not be included in my recordings because they are false readings. I would also record if any patients are affected by hereditary high blood pressure, if they suffer from any disease, do they exercise, and eat right.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

The blood pressure seemed to stay at a steady level for the female patients and the male stayed steady up until ages 31-44. Female blood pressure did increase when the reached the ages 45-54. Even then as they aged more then 54 their blood pressure went higher. Also, there were 3 patients who had an aliment. One patient had very poor nutrition, because of their income. They would eat only fatty foods, which effects the blood pressure tremendously because of the fatty build in the arteries in the heart. Another patient (female)has heritary high blood pressure and they suffered high blood pressure throughout the study. The third patient (male) suffered from obesity and lack of exercise. These two factors have a critical effect on blood pressure because the heart is working double time to get the blood through it. With obesity there is a lot of extra fat surrounding the heart and through the major arteries in the heart.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

Yes, the results support my hypothesis because the only thing that really was effected were the 3 patient who had aliments and they prove that they will have high blood pressure due to their conditions. As for age and gender the males have a higher risk for high blood pressure. As for their age the blood pressure increases at a faster rate the females. Females blood really rises when they hit the menopause age. Factors that effect blood pressure obviously would have a big impact on anyone's blood pressure, die., obesity, disease, heritary, and no activity.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

One patient had a reading of 160/100 and that is abnormal. With looking at his chart, this patient was suffering from high cholesterol, no activity, poor diet and alcohol consumption on weekends. All these factors putting this patient at risk for a heart attack! These factors can change if the patient puts in the effort.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

Risk factors for hypertension include obesity, high sodium diet, no activity, alcohol consumption, and family history. I believe that family history is the most closely associated with hypertension because some people can live healthy lives, but because hypertension runs in the family they can still suffer from it.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Obesity has a huge impact on blood pressure because it is making the heart work harder and can cause the heart to grow to abnormal size. Obesity can be the lone factor that causes hypertension because of all the excess fat in their bodies. Fat causes high cholesterol which leads to hardening of the arteries in the heart. People with disease, poor diet, no activity and heritary are all factors that can cause hypertension.

COMPENDIUM UNIT II

2008-10-12T20:09:00.001-07:00

Cardiovascular System

a. circulation and function

B. blood vessels

ac. how the heart pumps blood

d. heartbeat or cardiac cycle

e. EKG readings, blood pressures and pulse

f. Cardiovascular pathways

g. Disorders with blood vessels and heart

The cardiovascular system contains the heart and blood vessels that work together. The function of the heart, because it is a muscle, acts as a pump in which blood is pumped constantly. The main purpose of the heart and vessels is to circulate blood and serve the cells. Blood exchanges substances with the tissue fluid and not directly with cells. Blood also removes waste from of bodies through the urinary system, respiratory system, digestive system and the liver. All these organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis in the body. The Lymphatic system also assist the cardiovascular system due to their lymphatic vessels collecting excess tissue fluid and the return it to the cardiovascular system. The legs actually have one-way valves so when the fluid is being pumped back up to the heart the valve closes so it doesn't flow backwards.

The blood vessels in the heart serve as the passageways with blood being directed and distributed from the heart to all parts of the body and then being returned to the heart. The arteries are responsible for carrying blood away from the heart, specifically the aorta. The arteries have three layers;

greenfield.fortunecity.com/.../46/arteries.htm

As you can see, the outermost layer is thin, the middle layer is a thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. The outer layer is connective tissue. You can see the actually names of the layers in the picture. Next we can look at capillaries which are very important part of the cardiovascular system.

www.web-books.com/.../Cardiovascular/Cardio.htm

Capillaries are responsible for exchanges of gas, blood, and waste products. The are very small and thin, but have a large surface area. In the respiratory system capillaries exchange O2 with the alveoli. There are also arterioles which are very small arteries. Next we have the veins, which are responsible for bringing blood into the heart. The venules are small veins that drain blood from the capillaries and then join to form veins. You can in the picture above the blue vein. It is blue because it has deoxygenated blood in it. Here is a picture of a vein, showing that some veins contain valves.

contain valves. These valves are very important. They are responsible for the blood being pumped back up towards the heart and they close to prevent backflow. The walls of the veins are thin and this allows them to expand to a greater extent.

The heart is acts as a dual pump. It is divided into four chambers. I found a picture of a human heart showing inside.

www.faculty.washington.edu

As you can see in this picture chambers. The strip separating the chambers is the septum. The upper chambers, the atria receive blood returning to the heart and transfer it to the lower chambers, the ventricles, which pump blood from the heart. The heart is surrounded by a sac, called the pericardium. It helps protect the heart. The myocardium is the muscular portion of the heart. There is a left and right side to the heart and the pointy part you see in the picture is the apex of the heart which lies on the left side of the body. There are also valves in the heart which function by opening and closing to let blood in and keep blood out. The valves in heart are; atrioventricular valves that are supported by fibrous strings called chordae tendineae, these are attached to a muscle called papillary muscles. The valve on the right side of the heart is called a tricuspid valve because it has 3 cusps and the one on the left is called the bicuspid valve or mitral valve; it has 2 cusps. There is also a two semilunar valves; the pulmonary semilumar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk and the aortic semilunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta.

How blood flows through the heart and through the body. www.nlm.nih.gov

The blood enters the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, the superior vena cava (vein) collects the blood from the upper portion of the body and the inferior vena cava (vein) collects blood from the lower portion of the body. The blood leaves these two veins and enters the right atria. When the right atria contracts it pushes the blood from the atria through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The the right ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to go to the lungs, where it will pick up oxygen. Blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins, after getting oxygen and goes into the left atria. The the left atria contracts and is pumped through to the mitral valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle is very important in that it pumps through the aortic semilunar valve to the aorta which pumps the blood to the upper and lower portions of the heart. The left ventricle is thicker then the right because it has to pump a lot harder due to trying to get the blood to the body.

Cardiac cycle is each heartbeat. The is when the chambers in the heart contracting and the valves are opening and closing. There is a lub-dub sounds that doctors listen for when listening to your heart. The first sound is the lub and this is actually the increase in pressure of blood inside the ventricle forcing the cusps of the AV valve to slam shut and the dub sound is when the ventricles are relaxed and blood in the arteries pushes back causing the semilunar valves to close. When you get your blood pressure checked the sounds heard through a stethoscope are called the systolic number (which is the first sound heard) and the diastolic number, which is the last sound heard. The reading looks like this 120/80. Also, when a doctor listens to your heart and he hears a swish sound instead of just the lub-dub, this can indicate that a valve is not working properly. The heart contains a natural pacemaker, which is located in the right atria, it is called the SA node. This starts an electrical impulse which travels to the left and right atria causing them to contract and the ventricles fill with blood. The the electrical impulse travels to the AV node, the impulse goes to the Bundle of His, then divides, then is spread through the Purkinje fibers. These fibers work efficiently because of gap junctions at intercalated disks allow electrical current to flow from cell to cell. The heart is controlled by the a portion in the brain called the medulla oblongata, and can alter the heartbeat by sympathetic which speeds up the heartbeat and the parasympathetic, which slows the heartbeat.

Having an electrocardiogram is when doctors get a reading of the electrical activity through your heart.

www.cvphysiology.com/Arrhythmias/A009.htm

Here is a picture of what an electrocardiogram would look like if you had one done. The letters represent what is happening within your heart.

P wave= atria about to contract, QRS wave=signal the ventricles are about to contract and the, T wave=the muscle fibers are recovering.

Blood pressure and pulse are two very important vital signs! The blood pressure is the reading of the the pressure against the wall of a blood vessel. to measure blood pressure, the medical staff use a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. The brachial artery on the inner arm is used for the reading. This picture is a great example of what it looks like when you have your blood pressure done

There are two readings. The first sound heard is the systolic pressure and is heard when the blood is being forced from the heart. The second sound you hear is the diastolic pressure and happens while the heart is relaxing. So when recording your findings it would look like this 120/80 (systolic/diastolic). Next, the pulse can be felt in more then one area of the body. The pulse is the surge of blood entering the arteries causing their elastic wall to stretch and then recoil. You can feel your pulse at the radial (on your wrist, thumb side), carotid (on side of your next) and quite a few more, but those are the two that are commonly used. Never use your thumb to feel for a pulse because your thumb has a pulse of its own.

Cardiovascular pathways:

There are two cardiovascular pathways. One is the Pulmonary Circuit, this is where gases are exchanged. webschoolsolutions.com/patts/systems/lungs.htm

Here is a great example of pulmonary circuit. The blood that is blue contains very little oxygen and the red has a lot of oxygen. This picture also shows the systemic circuit. the pulmonary circuit involves the transport of blood to and from the lungs. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right side of the heart. This blood is then pumped by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery (deoxygenated blood) and into the capillaries of the lungs. In the capillaries of the alveoli, oxygen enters the blood and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells as carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs for removal. The oxygenated blood then travels in the pulmonary vein back to the left atrium of the heart where it joins the systemic circuit.

The systemic circuit involves the transport of blood to and from all the tissues of the body. This circuit is much larger than the pulmonary circuit and so the walls of the left ventricle of the heart are much larger than on the right side. This thicker muscle generates the force required to pump blood all around the systemic circuit. Oxygenated blood is pumped by the left ventricle into the aorta. The aorta then branches into smaller arteries that carry blood to all areas of the body. In the capillaries, oxygen is delivered to cells and carbon dioxide is picked up for removal. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the superior vena cava from the upper body and the posterior vena cava from the lower body. Both vessels enter the right atrium of the heart and blood is returned back to the pulmonary circuit for oxygenation.

Disorders of Blood Vessels

Hypertension is considered a silent killer because it can go unnoticed. Hypertension is basically high blood pressure and if you have high blood pressure this puts a tremendous amount of pressure on your blood vessels. A high blood pressure is considered anything over the systolic 140 and anything higher diastolic 90. People should have their blood pressure checked frequently. There are free blood pressure machines at all drug stores. Hypertension is also seen in people that have atherosclerosis, which is an accumulation of plaque in the arteries making it difficult for blood to pass through. Diet and exercise are key to prevent these conditions. Plaque can also cause clots to form because the blood cannot pass through the arteries. These clot are call thrombus and if it gets dislodged it can travel and that is when it is called an embolus. People can die from these because it can lodge in the lungs getting stuck and the blood can flow as it should.

Heart failure is a disorder of the heart. The heart cannot pump blood properly. It usually has to do with valves not closing all the way. There are treatments for these conditions, but most importantly people need to lead a healthy lifestyle.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD

a. Functions of Blood

b. Composition of Blood

c. How RBC's carry O2 & transport carbon dioxide

d. RBC's are produced in Bone

e. Disorders with RBC's

f. Types of White Blood cells & Disorders

g. Blood clotting & disorders

h. ABO Blood groups

i. Homeostasis

The human body contains about 5 liters of blood and the heart pumps this amount of blood with every beat. I found that to be amazing information from the biology book. The function of blood falls into three categories.

TRANSPORT : The blood is basically a body fluid. It helps transport nutrients and oxygen to our cells and also transports waste away from our cells. There are also hormones that are secreted into the blood and therefore carries those important hormones to the organ and tissues.

DEFENSE: Blood defends our body against pathogens, which could harm us. A pathogen is a germ or bacteria that can be found everywhere and anywhere!! Some blood cells are capable of phagocytosis, which they basically destroy (eat) the invader. Then there are antibodies, and these are secreted into the blood to get rid of antigens or when you get injured, blood rushes to that injury and forms a blood clot, closing the injury so no pathogens can get in.

REGULATION: The blood actually helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat (from active muscles) and transports it through the body. Also, helps regulate the bodies pH due to buffers in our blood.

COMPOSTION OF BLOOD

Blood is a tissue. The blood consists of formed elements and cell fragments, these two things are suspended in a liquid called plasma. The formed elements of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. These elements are formed in the red bone marrow (found inside the bone itself). The red bone marrow also contains stem cells. The plasma helps transport substances in the blood. There are also plasma proteins, in which there are three main types; albumins, globulins and fibrinogen. These three things are responsible for:

Transportation of insoluble substances around the body by allowing them to bind to protein molecules.

Protein reserve for the body

Blood clotting

Responses in accordance to disease (inflammatory response)

Protection from infection the gamma globulins function

Striking balance for the pH of the blood

Albumins are the most abundant of the plasma proteins and contribute to most of the plasmas osmotic pressure.

HOW RBC'S CARRY 02

RBC's are biconcave, meaning the have a very large surface area and they lack a nucleus. These cells are specialized to transport oxygen. The RBC's have many copies of hemoglobin (a pigment that makes red blood cells and blood a red color). A hemoglobin molecule has two parts; (1) the globin portion which is a protein made up of four folded polypeptide chains and (2) four iron-containing non-protein groups called heme, each is bound to one of the polypeptide. Hemoglobin can also combine with carbon dioxide. It helps transport this gas from the tissue cells back to the lungs. Instead of combining with the heme (for O2 transport) it combines with the globin molecules. Most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as bicarbonate. Co2 combines with H2O to form carbonic acid this happens in the plasma and moves slowly, but within the rbc's is an enzyme; carbonic anhydrase which speeds up the process.

RBC'S PRODUCED IN THE BONE MARROW

The stem cells of RBC's in the bone marrow divide and produce new cells that differentiate into mature RBC's. The RBC's lack a nucleus like WBC's, but they acquire hemoglobin. RBC's only live 120 days and are destroyed in the liver and spleen. www.freewebs.com

There are disorders with RBC's. One disorder is anemia. People with this feel very run down and are always tired. What happens is there is an insufficient amount of RBC's or the cell itself does not have enough hemoglobin (remember hemoglobin carries O2) and we need that O2 in order function. Some people need to take extra iron with this disorder. Another disorder is sickle cell disease. In this disorder the RBC's are shaped like a sickle instead of having that biconcave look. Without that biconcave, the RBC's are unable to carry a good supply of hemoglobin. The chains of hemoglobin is abnormal. The sickle cell disease is hereditary and the RBC's rupture when passing through the capillaries.

TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS

www.nlm.nih.gov

This picture above shows the different kinds of white blood cells. WBC'S are categorized into groups. The granular leukocytes, which have a granular appearance and the Agranular leukocytes which do not have a granular appearance. There are 3 types of granular leukocytes.

1. neutrophils - which are the most abundant of WBC's. Usually first responders to invasion by a pathogen.

2. Eosinophils - increase in number in parasitic worm infection

3. Basophils - similar to mast cells. They release histamine when allergic reactions happen.

The other group of WBC's, the Agranular leukocytes have just two types;

1. Lymphocytes - responsible for immunity to particular pathogens and their toxins. There are 2 types of lymphocytes: a. B cells - these are responsible for specific immunity by producing antibodies

b. T cells - these are also responsible for specific immunity by producing antibodies, but one T cell, the cytotoxic T cell directly destroys pathogens.

DISORDERS WITH WBC'S

Severe combined immunodeficiency disease is a WBC disorder. I actually remember the movie "The boy who lived in a Bubble." This disorder is when the the stem cells of WBC's lack an enzyme called adenosine deaminase. People without this enzyme cannot fight off infections. The boy in bubble was protected from the outside world. He could be compromised while in that bubble. Unfortunately, he died when the doctors tried injecting his bone marrow with donated blood cells. Another disorder is leukemia, this is a form of cancer and WBC proliferation. The WBC's are abnormal or immature.

BLOOD CLOTTING AND DISORDERS

Blood clotting is very important when it comes to an injury (small one) because when cut the blood rushes to the injury and forms a clot. When the injury first happens platelets and damaged tissue release prothrombin activator and converts the plasma protein prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin acts like an enzyme the severs two short amino acid chains form each fibrinogen molecule. These activated fragment join to form long threads of fibrin. which covers the blood and forming a clot so blood will not escape anymore.

This is what it actually looks like. Some people have clotting disorders. Thrombocytopenia is an insufficient number of platelets. If your blood does not clot and you have injury to your body, you could bleed to death because the clot will not form at site. Another disorder is hemophilia. Hemophilia is a rare, inherited bleeding disorder in which your blood doesn’t clot normally. If you have hemophilia, you may bleed for a longer time than others after an injury. You also may bleed internally, especially in your knees, ankles, and elbows. This bleeding can damage your organs or tissues and, sometimes, be fatal.

ABO BLOOD GROUPS

www.encyclopedia.com

This picture is great example of how to find out your blood type, only if you had the antigens to mix with your blood. We did this in my physiology class. As you can see, the blood cells and the antigens that are compatible with it. I think this picture really shows what I would of tried to explain. It is important to know your blood type if you ever need a transfusion. The blood types have to be them same in order to get the transfusion. Another blood type the Rh- and Rh+. usually occurs within a pregnant women.

www.pennhealth.com

In this pregnancy the child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-. The Rh negative mother can start to produce antibodies against the Rh+. With another pregnancy and another Rh+ baby and the anti Rh antibodies may cross the placenta and destroy the child's RBC's. This is called hemolytic disease. If the RBC's are destroyed there is hemoglobin breakdown products in the blood can lead to brain damage and mental retardation, and sometimes death.

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the maintenance by the highly coordinated, regulated actions of the body systems of stable chemical and physical conditions in the internal fluid environment that bathes the body's cells. Without homeostasis we would not survive. Homeostasis makes everything run smoothly as long as all systems are not compromised.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

a. microbes, pathogens & you

b. bacteria

c. viruses, prions

d. Lymph system and organs

e. inflammatory response

f. defenses ( t cells and B cells)

g. Active & passive immunity

h. disorders of the immune system

Microbes and pathogens can be found everywhere and anywhere. We even carry some, mostly non-pathogens. They can be spread about in numerous ways. If someone has TB (tuberculosis), and they sneeze, if you are within 3 feet of them you have a very good chance of getting it. Our bodies have lines of defense. One being our skin, this is the first line of defense. Secondly, is the mucous membranes of our body cavities. An example of a mucous membrane would be the the respiratory system, which is lined with epithelium tissue.

BACTERIA

Bacteria are prokaryotic and they lack a nucleus. They come in three shapes, bacillus (rods), coccus (spherical), and spirillum (spiral).

www.treehugger.com/images

Bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan. They reproduce by binary fission which is they produce two cell that are identical to the original cell. Some cell walls are surrounded by a capsule that has a thick gummy consistency. Bacteria also have appendages that help them move about. They are called flagella and some have fimbriae which are stiff fibers that allow bacteria to adhere to surfaces like "host cells." Another appendage is a pilus, this is a elongated hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from one cell to another.

VIRUSES

Viruses can enter the body through any opening. I don't think I have to point those out on our body, but this is how they enter. Viruses are acellular and do not live independently. Some viruses that many are familiar with is AIDS, chickenpox, and the flu. A virus has two part the outer capsid composed of protein unites and an inner core of nucleic acids. Viruses carry their own genetic code so that they can reproduce by itself. It just uses our bodies as a "Host." Some viruses are being transported from other countries. Our nation is worried about a pandemic! One example of this is the bird flu which started in Asia and was transported to Canada.

PRIONS

Prions are proteinaceous infectious particles, what this means is that a regular protein is compromised and cannot perform its regular functions. Prions cause degenerative diseases of the nervous system. One very familiar prion is the Mad cow disease. This disease was thought to have been transmitted by ingestion of brain and nerve tissue from infected animals.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This system consists of lymphatic vessels and organs. The function of the lymph system is the return of excess filtered fluid. Lymphatic vessels form an extensive and complex interconnected network of channels. They mainly collect fluid lost from vascular capillary beds during nutrient exchange and deliver it back to the venous side of the vascular system. The lymphatic system as two ducts; the thoracic duct which returns lymph collected form the body below the thorax, the left arm, and left side of the head and neck into the subclavian vein. The second duct is the right lymphatic duct this duct returns lymph form the right arm and right side of the head and neck into the right subclavian vein. The lymph organs consists of the red bone marrow, and the thymus gland and there are secondary organs which are the lymph nodes and spleen. Red bone marrow produces all the the blood cells.

www.nevdgp.org.au

The thymus gland, (seen in this picture) has two functions. It produces thymic hormones, such as thymosin which are believed to help in the maturation of T cells. Secondly, immature T cells travel to the thymus gland where they can mature. The lymph nodes are found all over our bodies, for example if you feel a lump under your arm that is a swollen lymph node. The lymph nodes are divided into compartments. The compartments each contain a sinus that increases in toward the center of the node, therefore making the node swell. The spleen is also filters blood and plays a role in the lymph system. The spleen is also considered the largest organ of the lymph system. The spleen is also divided into sections in called the red pulp and the other white pulp. The red pulp surrounds venous sinuses is involved in filtering blood. The blood must pass through the sinuses before exiting. Here the blood is cleaned of debris.

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES

Inflammatory responses are our bodies protected where the inflammation is taking place. This mechanism recruits the WBC's to help in the defense against infection. Chemical mediators also help with the defense because they cause the capillaries to dilate and become more permeable. The site of injury can turn red due to the excess blood flow through the capillaries. Increase in body temperature can prevent the spread of pathogens because they can't grow and increased blood flow brings more fighting WBC's. If the injury is not severe the redness and temp will go away shortly, but if the injury is severe the neutrophils (wbc), can secrete chemical mediators called cytokines. These attract more WBC to the area of the injury. Monocytes are also attracted to the area. Monocytes become macrophages and are more helpful the monocytes because they can get lymphocytes to carry out defense mechanisms.

DEFENSE WITH T CELLS AND B CELLS

These two lymphocytes are very important in helping our body with defense!! We have antibodies in our bodies that fight off antigens, but we need more. When the antigen is more powerful, then we need the help of these lymphocytes. They both have receptor that aid in recognizing antigens. The B cells produce plasma cells and memory cells. The plasma cells circulate in the blood and lymph. They are very large for the mass production and secretion of antibodies to a specific antigen. The memory cells produced by the B cells are just what they are called because if the same antigen entered the body the memory cell divide and give rise to more plasma cells capable of producing the correct type antibody.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE IMMUNITY

Active immunity can involve a pathogen that you have had and your body builds an immunity to it, meaning you will not get it again. People can also be immunized from getting a disease. The person is injected with with the pathogen or a weaken version of the pathogen and the body build antibodies. These immunizations can not cause the pathogen to become active because they are no longer virulent. After you have been immunized against something specific you can see if the antibodies have built up by having a blood test called a titer. This blood work will show if you have a immunity to that specific pathogen. Passive immunity is when a person is given prepared antibodies or immune cells to combat a disease. This type of immunity does not last. One example is the newborn being exposed to something but the mothers antibodies have passed through the placenta protected the newborn for a short period of time. Also, if the mother breast feeds, her antibodies pass through the milk and protects the infant .

DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The disorders of the immune system involves autoimmune disease, which causes the body to attack itself. The is unknown causes why these diseases occur. One disorder is Multiple Sclerosis, in which the T cells attack the myelin sheath of the nerve fibers and causes neuromuscular symptoms like, leg weakness leading to the inability to walk. Another autoimmune disease is Rheumatoid arthritis where the joints are affected and the joints affected look deformed.

When a persons immune defense is compromised they are unable to protect themselves from disease. AIDS is another example of a autoimmune disease, or acquired immune deficiency. People with AIDS are a very weak immune system and are susceptible to infections. The can contract pneumonia, cancer, and other viruses.

2008-10-01T11:31:00.001-07:00

testing

My reflection of Unit I

2008-09-17T12:05:00.000-07:00

SELF EVALUATION OF UNIT I

The aspect of the assignments I am most proud of is..., I got them all done!!! I worked hard on each and every assignment. Actually, the three that I am most proud of are, building a model of a human cell. That was kind of fun. Finding stuff all around house to use and trying to be creative was challenging!! The next thing I am proud of is my microscope write up. I have had experience with microscopes and they are fascinating! Thirdly, ummm I really can't pinpoint another, but maybe my first compendium. I have never put one of those together before and that was also a challenge!!

I think I could have improved on my writing assignments. I am awful at writing!!!!! Hope it doesn't show to much!! Writing has always been my weakness. Unfortunately, this was a lot writing, but I made it through!!

My over all grade I think would be A for effort. Everyone probably says that, but I think I worked very hard and juggling 2 other courses at the same time was very hard to organize. I can perform better in the next unit of this course by organizing my time better. I need to focus on one task at a time instead of looking at everything that is due!!!

This whole unit was engaging because there was so much information. It was all very interesting, and I especially liked the chapter on cancer. I don't think I ever felt distanced from the course. I think overall I felt overwhelmed!

The actions I felt affirming was having to write what you know. It was challenging, but useful because it reinforced the information.

The one thing that puzzled me was creating this blog. I have never used one before. Some people have great looking blogs.

What surprised me was how online classes work. This is my first online class and I must say there is a lot of work!! In the classroom you are motivated by the instructor, but with online classes it all rides on your shoulders whether or not you are going to do the work.

Recombinat (bacterial) DNA insulinvs Pig Pancreatic insulin

2008-09-17T11:41:00.000-07:00

UNIT I ETHICAL ESSAY

RECOMBINANT (BACTERIAL) DNA INSULIN VS PIG PANCREATIC INSULIN

For years scientists have been making insulin obtained from pig's pancreas and it has been very successful in the treatment of diabetics for years and years. But what do scientists do??? They research for new treatment of diseases. The recombinant DNA technology is a new treatment for diabetic patients. The scientists used a weakened strand of E. coli (already found in our bodies) as a a vector=a carrier or transporter, ie., a virus or plasmid that conveys a genetically engineered DNA segment into a host cell (us).

The pig insulin has worked for years, so you may ask yourself; If it isn't broke, why fix it??? Well, people are always looking for a new and improved treatment for a disease. The Recombinant DNA human insulin has been proven indistinguishable from pancreatic human insulin. One problem did occur with its creation, but don't all new treatments have side effects.

I believe that it is by personal choice that a diabetic patient use pig insulin or the new technology of recombinant DNA insulin. Some people may think in two ways. The pig insulin comes from a very dirty animal and with recombinant DNA this is coming for E. coli (which is infectious) and can be very dangerous if the not controlled, but E coli is already produced in our bodies and the new Recombinant DNA is a weakened form and just used as a host cell. A good example of the E. coli is similar to the flu vaccine, you are actually getting a shot of a weakened flu virus.

the study in the article I read was the concerns of hypoglycemia which is low blood sugar which diabetic suffer from. In a British study published in "Lancet" hypoglycemia was induced on patients with the pig and human insulin and the study showed "no significant differences in the frequency of signs of hyoglycaemia between the users. A British women who had been dependant on the pig insulin switched to the Recombinant DNA insulin and experienced recurring hypoglycemia. She eventually went back on the pig insulin.

Dr Simone Wolff of the University of College of London said as far as he is concerned there no fault with the human insulin . Also, he thinks they need to have a study to examine the possible risks.

Again, I believe it is personal choice and trial and error. Diabetics have it hard enough! But trying something new, never hurt anyone. I believe there will a lot more studies done with insulin and the Recombinant DNA insulin with many improvements. Scientists are geared towards finding a new treatments for diabetes. All new drugs are trial and error!

COMPENDIUM II

2008-09-13T15:29:00.000-07:00

COMPENDIUM II

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

I. Chromosome Inheritance

A. Mitosis and Meiosis

B. Chromosomes/Karotype

C. Diseases with Chromosomes

II. CANCER

A. Cancer cells

B. Causes & Prevention

C. How Cancer is diagnosed

D. Treatments available

III. GENETIC INHERITANCE

A. One & two trait inheritance

B. Genotype & phenotype

C. Gametes

D. Genetic Disorders

E. Polygenic Inheritance

F. Sex-linked inheritance

G. X-linked disorders

IV. DNA BIOLOGY & TECHNOLOGY

A. Structure and Function of DNA RNA and Protein

B. Translation and Transcription

C. Regulation of gene expression

D. Gene Isolation & cloning

E. Genome Project

CHROMOSOMAL INHERITANCE

Chromosomes are what we inherit from generation to generation, because of the genes expressed in each chromosome. Humans have 46 chromosomes that occur in 23 pairs. 22 of these pairs are called autosomes. All of these genes control traits, except gender. The gender are determined by the one pair of chromosomes called the sex chromosomes. Males have the XY chromosome and the female has the XX chromosome. Also, an important note is the Y chromosome also contain the SRY gene that causes the male testes to develop. Chromosomes are found in out DNA. They are packaged into chromatins and when the cell divide they unravel and become chromosomes.

A Karotype is basically a picture of numbered chromosomes.

http://www.nature.com/cr/journal/v15/n5/fig_tab/7290307f2.html

Mitosis is the process of cell division during which the cell nucleus divides.

nte-serveur.univ-lyon1.fr/.../mitosis1.gif

As you can see mitosis goes through stages. Prophase is the first stage in which the chromosomes become visible. The centerioles, located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelop separate and take up positions on opposite sides of the nucleus. The centerioles lie in the centrosome that help to organize the spindle, a microtubule structure that helps separate the chromosomes. Then the condensed chromosomes become attached to fibers in the spindle at a point near the centromere of each chromatid. Next is metaphase. In metaphase, the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell, microtubules connect the centromere of each chromosome to the poles of the spindle. Third is Anaphase. During ananphase the centromeres that join the sister chromatids separate letting the sister chromosomes continue to move until the have seperated into two groups near the poles of the spindle. It ends when the chromosomes stop moving. The last phase is telophase. In telophase, the chromosomes which were condensed begin to disperse into a tangle of dense material. A nuclear envelop reforms around each chromosome, the spindle begins to break apart and a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus.

Meiosis also has stages. Meiosis is the process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.

kenpitts.net/hbio/8cell_repro/meiosis_pics.htm

Before meiosis 1 occurs each chromosome is replicated. The cell begin to divide and kind of looks like mitosis, but each chromosome pairs with its homologous chromosome to form a structure called a tetrad. There are 4 chromatids in a tetrad. This is where they may exchange portions of their chromatids in a process called crossing over. Next is metaphase and this is when the spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes. Anaphase is when the fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward opposite ends of the cell. After the chromosomes separate two new cells are formed. Each cell contains four chromatids. But neither one of the daughter cells has two complete sets of chromosomes.

Second stage is meiosos II.

With meiosis II the two cells produced in meiosis one enter a second meiotic division. This has the four stages just like mitosis. Prophase cells have one chromosome from each homologous pair. In metaphase, two chromosomes line up in the center of each cell. In Anaphase the paired chromatids separate. Each of the four daughter cells produced is receives 2 chromatids. Four daughter cells now contain the haploid number.

Diseases can result from having to many or too few chromosomes. This can occur during the two cell divisions with I explained above. One example is non disjunction that happens during meiosis when both of a homologous pair go into the same daughter cell. Normal development relies on two of each kind of chromosomes. One disease is Down Syndrome. This is when there is an extra chromosome on chromosome 21. They say you have a better survival rate with an extra chromosome then you do with a deficiency. Another disease is Turner syndrome. This is when a child is born with only one sex chromosome. They will need hormonal supplements because they do not go through puberty or menstruate.

CANCER This is a picture of a brain cancer cell

www.alternative-cancer.net/Cell_photos.htm

Cancer cells are invasive. They have no function and look abnormal. They have a abnormal nuclei. They are large and may contain chromosomes. In a normal human cell, chromosomes end with special repetitive DNA sequences called telomeres. After binding with the correct protein the cell undergoes a process called apopstosis in which the cell dies. With cancer cells, a special enzyme telmerase continues the telomere sequences so that the cancer cell can keep growing, and growing. The cells eventually make up a tumor, they pile on top of each other and grow in layers. There are 2 types of cancers. benign is is a tumor that is encapsulated and will not invade adjacent tissue. Malignant is more serious. They can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue. In order for cancer cells to grow they need a well developed capillary network. Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels. Cancer cells can also metastasize, meaning it can spread rapidly and invade other organs. This is terminal!! Cancer is a genetic disease. When cancer develops, the cell cycle occurs repeatedly due to mutations in two types of genes:

1. Proto-oncogenes - they code for proteins that promote the cell and prevent apotosis.

2. Tumor-suppressor genes - they code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis.

There are several types of cancer. Most can be treated, but if it metastasizes then there is usually nothing doctors can do. Tumors are related to the organ it is associated with or has invaded. One example is leukemia. This particular cancer is associated with white blood cells. Another cancer is breast cancer. Very common in women, but men can get breast cancer too. Cancer can be hereditary. Some parents can be carriers. For example, with breast cancer scientist have found genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. These are tumor-suppressor genes that follow a particular inheritance pattern. Another type of tumor suppressor is RB gene. This is retinoblastoma, when a tumor develops in the eye. Others causes of cancer are environmental carcinogens. A carcinogen is a chemical that causes cancer. One example is radiation, like, ultraviolet rays (sun), x-rays and radon gas. These interfere with a persons DNA causing mutations. Smoking is also environmental. You don't even have to be a smoker to get cancer. People need to make healthy choices, not to smoke, eat a good diet with less red meat, and exercise. Also, people need to get regular checkup because sometimes cancer can go undetected. Women need regular pap smears and mammograms. Men need to have a prostate test done and yes some need mammograms. The American Cancer Society has seven warning signs which spells out CAUTION. C= change in bowel or bladder habits. A= a sore that does not heal. U= unusual bleeding or discharge. T= thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere. I= indigestion or difficulty swallowing. O= obvious change in wart or mole. N= nagging cough or hoarseness. Another important thing people can prevent is skin cancer. People can die from it. Melanoma is very dangerous and can start with just a small mole on your back that grows to the size of a half dollar. Keep checking moles!! Other tests that can be performed are Cat scans, MRI's, Pet scans and colonoscopy. Treatments for cancers are surgery to remove a cancerous tumor, radiation and chemotherapy. The radiation treatment causes chromosomal breakage and cell cycle disruption. People in low cancer stages are usually treated with radiation. Chemotherapy is a way to catch cancer cells that have spread throughout the body. Chemotherapy is usually given intravenously. one example of a chemotherapy drug is Alkylating agents - these medications interfere with the growth of cancer cell by blocking the replication of DNA. There are also newer therapies. One is immunotherapy, which refers to our immune system. The immune system is compromised when cancer cells attack. A vaccine called Melacine, which contains broken melanoma cells from two different sources in being studied for prevention of melanoma. There will be a lot of new therapies, as scientists keep up the research. It will never end!!

GENETIC INHERITANCE

We inherit our genes obviously from our parents. There are genotypes and phenotypes. The genotypes is generally your genetic makeup, the "genes" that you inherit. For you to inherit certain genes they have to be on the same chromosome and affecting the same trait, known as an alleles. These alleles are recognized by dominant or recessive. To separate the two they are categorized into letters. The dominant get capital letters, whereas the recessive gets lower case letters. For example, unattached earlobes are dominant over attached earlobes, so the dominant "E" for unattached and "e" for attached. There are two alleles for a given trait. Also, if the alleles is dominant; ie., EE this is considered a homozygous dominant and if it is recessive; ee it is homoozygous (meaning same) recessive. If the alleles are Ee then this is considered heterozygous. This would be considered dominant because of the leading E. Phenotype is what physical characteristics you inherit from our parent. Phenotypes can also be inheriting a disorder such as color blindness. There is also one and two trait cross inheritance, which involves gamates. Gametes are the specialized sex cells, which are the sperm of a male and an egg of a female. The gametes start out with 23 pairs of chromosomes. These chromosomes separate during meiosis. One trait crossing involves parents wanting to know if their child will a certain genotype or phenotype; ie freckles. Only "one" parent has freckles. This would depend on the allele pairing and if a parent carries this particular gene. Depending how the alleles pair there are sometimes a 50% chance that the child will have freckles. This is where the Punnett square is a useful tool in determining what the chances are a child would have freckles or unattached earlobes. The square combines all possible gametes and determine the genotype and the phenotypes of all offspring. The child or children can be homologous or heterozygous. Heterozygous refers to monohybirds in regards to having one pair of alleles. There are also two trait crosses. This involves meiosis and the gamete formation when a cross involves two traits. The alleles, of course, plays a key role in this process. What chromosomes you are inheriting from your parents, is homologue of each pair is the parental (father) chromosome and the maternal (mother) chromosome. All possible combinations of alleles occur in the gametes. Genetic disorders can occur if a parent is a carrier and some parents can be unaware that they are carriers if genetic testing is not done. One genetic disorder can be autosomal dominant in someone who has alleles AA or Aa and they will have the disorder. Someone with the recessive alleles aa will have the disorder. So a child born to heterozygous parents, has a 25% chance of having a disorder. Examples of genetic disorders are Tay-Sachs disease. This disease is an autosomal recessive disorder. It is a lack of an enzyme hexosaminidase A (Hex A) and storage of its substrate glycophingolipid in lyosomes. Occurs mainly in the brain. The symptoms are not apparent at first, but the child's development slows between four and eight months. Also has neurological impairment. These children eventually become blind, has seizures and becomes paralyzed. There are Polygenetic inheritance. Polygenic traits are skin color and height. Several sets of alleles are involved. The polygenic inheritance is like phenotype that is inherited from your parents. Skin color and height are multifactual traits because they both can effected by the environment. For example with skin color; the sun can make you darker due to the pigment in the skin. With height; if you are not the nutrition needed you could stop growing properly. Next six-linked inheritance which are controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes. An allele on the X chromosome is X-linked (mom) and the Y chromosome is Y-linked. These determine if you will be male or female when you are born. Many sex-linked genes are found on the X chromosome. The Y chromosome is much smaller then the X chromosome therefore it can carry more. Colorblindness is one of traits carried. There are three genes associated with color vision which lies on the X chromosome. In males a defective version of any one of these genes produces colorblindness. The most common form of colorblindness is not seeing the red-green colors. Males have just one X-chromosome so all the X-linked alleles are expressed in males even if they are recessive. For the female to express for colorblindness there must be two copies of the allele one on each of the two X chromosomes. There are sex-linked disorders. One example is Hemophilia. There are two important gens that are carried on the X-chromosome that help control blood clotting. A recessive allele in either of the two genes may produce this disease.

DNA BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

DNA(deoxyribnucleic acid) is the genetic material housed in the nucleus of a cell. The structure is similar to a ladder when replication is taking place. Originally, it is a double helix and is composed of two strands, each strand is a polynucleotide. The nucleotide is composed of a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous base. The phosphate-sugar combination is the backbone !! The base pairing is held together be hydrogen bonding, which are weak bonds. The bases are what is important in the functioning of DNA. The bases for DNA are Adenine and Guanine, which are purine (two rings) and Tymine and cytosine (one ring). In replication(also known as semiconservative), (one function of DNA), the cell divides and each new cell get an exact copy of DNA. In replication the one strand of DNA is separated and the base pairing, because they are held together with weak hydrogen bonds are separated. Then complementary base pairing is started. A-T always and C-T. These bases are joined together by an enzyme DNA polymerase. The DNA is originally unzipped by an enzyme helicase. The replication is complete when an enzyme seals any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone. I believe the enzyme is called ligase. Structure and function of RNA. RRNA (ribonucleic acid) is made up of nucleotides and the sugar ribose. The nucleotides are similar to DNA's nucleotides, except Urasil takes the place of Thymine. RNA still has Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine. RNA has a single strand. RNA is made with help of DNA and is used for protein synethesis. There are 3 forms of RNA. mRNA is messenger RNA, used to carry genetic information from the DNA to the ribosomes, where protein synethesis occurs. Next, is tRNA, transfer RNA, is produced in the nucleus also with the help of DNA and tRNA is responsible for transferring amino acids to the ribosomes. The last RNA is rRNA, ribosomal RNA, this is made up in the nucleolus of a nucleus and DNA is used to help produce it. rRNA is involved with the ribosome where protein synthesis occurs. Transcription is when RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA. During transcription RNA polymerase binds to DNA and seaprates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA. mRNA is produced when the RNA nucleotides joins with RNA polymerase. With translation, the ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start codon,AUG, that is reconized only by the iniator tRNA. Amoni acids are linked to tRNA and bind to the appropiate codon in mRNA by forming completmentary base pairing withe tRNA anticodon. The ribosome moves from codon to codon along the mRNA. Amino acids are added one by one translated into a polypeptidic sequences dictated by DNA and represnted by RNA. At the end a release factor binds to to the stop codon terminating translation and reelasing the completed polypeptide from the ribosome. Proteins are macromolucules that contain a nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are also polymers of amino acids. There are more the 20 different amino acids. Protein help to carry out chemical reactions, transport small molecules in and out of cell and fight diseases.

molbioandbiotech.wordpress.com/.../ This is a picture of gene expression.

About replication, I would like to break it down.................................

Replication fork: point of unwinding DNA

Primer: starts thing off or gets things going

DNA is tightly coiled and must be uncoiled to begin replication

Uncoiling done by enzymes

DNA is made in a 5'-3' direction

Replication enzyme is DNA polymerase

DNA synthesizes enzyme

Makes new strand by finding base pair

It can find, bond to, modify at the rate of 1000 nucleotides per second

DNA polmerase can only make DNA in a 5'-3' direction

To make a new base it needs something to bond too

Can't seal gapping holes made in lagging (3'-5') strand it goes in the oppisite direction then 5'-3'

RNA polymerase makes RNA primer to sart so DNA polymerase can continue

DNA ligase fills hole in DNA replication on lagging strand created when Okazaki fragments made

Helicase is the enzyme that unwinds or flattens out DNA helix

If DNA can't be unwound by helicase, topisomerase (also an enzyme) breaks DNA backbone so helicase can unwind it

Single strand binding proteins keep DNA from recoiling after helicase unwinds it

Leading stand is made continuously

Lagging strand is similar to road under construction (analogy)

RNA polymerase makes RNA primer so DNA polymerase has a starting point

Okazaki fragment is added onto primer

DNA has to get rid of primer (RNA)

Genome Project

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome

This is a picture of multiple chromosome making up a genome. A genome is from an organism and its whole hereditary information encoded in DNA. DNA fingerprinting uses the genome of an organsim to identifiy individuals. It does not analyze the cells most imortant genes, which are almost identical in most people. DNA fingerprinting analyzes sections of DNA that have little or no known function bt var from one person to another. How it works.....A small sample of DNA is cut with a restrction enzyme. The fragments that are left are seperated by size using gel electrophoresis (The migration of electrically charged molecules through a fluid or gel under the influence of an electric field. Electrophoresis is used especially to separate combinations of compounds, such as fragments of DNA, for the purpose of studying their components). Fragments containing these variable regions are the detected with a DNA probe, revealing a series of DNA bands of various sizes. If enough combinations of restriction enzymes and probes are used, a pattern of bands is produced that can be distinguished from the pattern of any othr individual in the world. DNA samples can be taken from blood, sperm and hair follicles. With the Genome project Dr. Francis Collins and Dr Craig Venter attempted to sequence all human DNA. They were successful. The genome project is similar to what I've just explained about DNA fingerprinting. Scientisit use the autosomal chromosomes and the 2 sex chromosomes. They can locate genes in several ways. An open reading frome is a series of DNA bases that can produce part of a working mRNA sequence. The mRNA coding regions of most genes are interrupted by introns, but scienctists also have to find the special DNA sequences that mark the boundaries between intron and exonsin order to follow the gene through its complete length. When the process is complete the scietists can can pinpoint the gene's promotor and the start and stop sites for transcription. The Genome project continues today, as scientiss are still analyzing the huge amount of information in the DNA sequence looking for gene's that might provide clues to some of the basic properties of life. Also, Biotechnology companies are working on finding genetic information that could be useful in developing new drugs and treatments for diseases.

Conclusion:

Well, three of these chapters were a great explanation of how we were really built. We are all very unique individuals due to what we inherit. This can be good and bad because of the diseases carried in some genes. Scientists around the world have a never ending job because of DNA sequences. Obviously, science is limitless in its findings. You hear it every day about new discoveries or a cure for a certain disease. The chapter on cancer is a wake up call for people to take better care of themselves. Some diseases are preventable and others are inherited.

GENES AND INHERIDENCE

2008-09-10T17:31:00.000-07:00

What is an inheritance? To most people it is money or property that is left to them by family

or close friends. There is a more important kind of inheritance and that is genes. Every living thing has a set of characteristics inherited from its parent or parents. Scientists have done

extraordinary work with finding out about the genes we inherit from our parents.

The work really begun in 1822 when Gregor Mendel did experiments with pea plants. He basically laid the foundation of the science of genetics. I would like to start with a few "key" definitions before I explain what Mendel did.

1. Genotype - genetic makeup of an organism

2. Phenotype - physical characteristics of an organism

3. Allele - one of a number of different forms of a gene

4. Cross-over - process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis

5. Dominant - the one pair of alternative alleles that masks the effects of the other when both are present in the same cell or organism

6. Recessive - an allele that produces it characteristics phenotype only when its allele is identical

Gregor Mendel conducted an experiment with pea plants. He worked at a monastery in a garden. Like many plants or flowers, the pea plants use parts of their flowers to reproduce. The male part of each flower produces pollen, which contain the male sex cells. The female part of the flower produces eggs-female sex cells. When pollen fertilized an egg cell, a seed for a new plant is formed. Pea plants normally reproduce by self pollination, in which pollen fertilizes the egg cells in the very same flower. When Mendel started his experiment he had several different stocks of pea plants. They self pollinated and would produce offspring identical to themselves. One of his seed stock produced tall plants and another short plants. One stock had green seeds and the other yellow seeds.

Peas are known to cross - pollinate. With cross pollination male sex cells in pollen from the flower of one plant fertilize from cross pollination have two plants as parents.

Mendel selected pea plants that he could mate with each other. What he did was, he cut away the male part of a flower. Then he dusted that flower with pollen from a second flower. The resulting seed were crosses between the two plants!!!! Also, when he crossed these he noticed that all the offspring were green. Remember, he used the sex cells from green and yellow seed plants. He called the offspring F1. Then he allowed all of the green F1 plants to self-pollinate. He referred to these offspring as the F2 generation. Mendel noticed a 3:1 ratio in pod color. About 3/4 of the F2 plants had green pods and about 1/4 had yellow pods. This whole process was termed Mendel's

Law of Segregation. This law states that allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization.
From Mendel's law of segregation we see that the alleles for a trait separate when gametes are formed (through a type of cell division called meiosis). These allele pairs are randomly united at fertilization. If a pair of alleles for a trait are the same they are called homozygous. If they are different they are called heterozygous. In meiosis each plant has to inherit a single copy of every gene from both parents. Since each pea plant has two parents each plant must carry two complete sets of genes. Then when an organism produces its own gametes those two sets of genes must be separated from each other so that each gamete contains just one set of genes. Also, when the chromosomes are homologous they are referred to as diploid, which means two sets Chromosomes from each parent. If there are a single set of chromosomes and a single set of genes these are referred to as haploid, which means "one set." Meiosis has several steps it goes through to produce daughter cells. It is the process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell. At the end of the steps meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells.

Genotype and phenotype play a key role. Genotype is the expression of genetic makeup and phenotype is the physical traits that you acquire. The genotype and phenotype are carried from generation to generation. The different forms of the genes are called alleles. This is where dominant and recessive come in. The dominance states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. An organism with a dominant allele for a particular form of a trait will always have that form. An organism with recessive allele for a particular form of a trait will have that form only when the dominant allele for the trait is not present. In Mendel's experiments,

the allele for tall plants was dominant and the allele for short plants was recessive. The allele for yellow seeds was dominant, while the allele for green seeds was recessive. To get a better understanding a Punnett Square, which was created by Reginald Punnett, the square that is for predicting the way alleles can combine. In this square the dominant and recessive are expressed with capital letters and lower case letters. If you see, for example TT, that would a dominant alleles and tt, would be recessive.

As part of this essay, we had to create a scenario of the Drosophilia fly ...........................
This picture shows the Punnett square and the offspring phenotype of the flies. Also, it show that the two fly's are heterogeneous. It also shows that one of the offspring inherited recessive genes.

Also, with this essay I did the dragon genetics lab. This was fun. It was like putting a puzzle together.
In this picture you can see that the dragons look identical. Also, you can see the chromosome X and the alleles that the dragon can inherited. It says at the bottom of the picture that I mastered the genotype to phenotype changes in the dragons. The genotype is the genetic makeup the dragon inherited and the phenotype is the physical traits, which you can see.

The research of genes and inheritance is very important. Scientists and researchers can predict what a child, for instance, may inherit. Some chromosomes fail to separate and the child my be born with downs syndrome. This particular disease is three copies of chromosome 21. We all inherit a set of chromosomes. Also, scientists can do a lot of testing on parents before they decide to get pregnant and see if a particular gene they have inherited could be expressed in the child's genes. Sometimes a particular disease may skip generation, but someone in that family is carrying "the gene" that will be expressed eventually. I should tell you that each cell in our bodies has 23 pairs of chromosome with a total of 46. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the X and Y and determine your gender.

I truly believe it is important for people to have genetic counseling before having a baby if they have certain family diseases that they are afraid of.

2008-09-06T18:32:00.000-07:00

MODEL OF A HUMAN CELL

I made a model of a human cell with all of its internal parts. This was no easy task. The cell is highly organized. I used all sorts of interesting things around my house. I will list the parts and what their function is inside the cell…….

NUCLEUS – I used a fishing bobber, bright orange. The nucleus is in the center of a cell and houses the cell’s genetic material; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

THE CELL - The whole cell is made of Styrofoam colored with crayon. We have millions of them in our bodies.

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – I used green yarn. Even though this particular organelle has tunnels, I think it is a good representation. The RER is studded with ribosomes’s given it is rough look. It is associated with the ribosome for protein synthesis.

LYSOSOME- I used a fuzzy yellow ball. These organelles are responsible for intercellular digestive system. They contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze hydrolysis reaction. They take up the debris and foreign materials; like bacteria.

ENDOCYTOSIS VESICLE – I used a bottle cap with a marker. The endocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane dips outward and brings in a droplet of extracellular fluid. The lysosomes work very closely with these vesicles. Endo= within

PLASMA MEMBRANE – I used a large freezer bag. The plasma membrane surrounds and protects the cell. It is a protein studded lipid bilayer. It is separated from the extracellular fluid.

SMOOTH ENOPLASMIC RETICULUM – I used red paper. The SER does not contain ribosomes and that is why it is “smooth.” It serves as a central packaging and discharge site for molecules that are to be transported from the Endoplasmic Reticulum.

GOLGI COMPLEX (APPARATUS) – I used a pink pipe cleaner. The vesicles that bud off the Endoplasmic reticulum go to this organelle for processing the raw material into finished products. MITOCHONDRIA – I used green clay and magic marker. The magic marker was to draw the compartments within the mitochondria. It has 2 parts; the cristae, and the matrix. The mitochondria are the energy producing organelle they extract energy from the nutrients in food and transforms it into a usable form for cell activities. Generates ATP (adenosine diphosphate) with cellular respiration.
CILIA – I used green strands from a decorative straw I had. Cilia are the motile, hair like protrusions from the surface of the cell. The are responsible for sweeping away debris. Ie., in lungs it brings up sputum so we can spit it out.
RIBOSOMES – I used large black seeds. These are very important when it comes to protein synthesis because they are referred to as the “work benches.”
VAULT – I used a tip of a crayon. Serves as cellular trunks for transport from nucleus to cytoplasm.
PEROXISOME – I used a red berry (not real). They perform detoxification activities.
EXOCYTOTIC VESICLE – I used green clay with black seeds. These vesicles are opposite of the endocytotic vesicle in whereas they spill out of the cell.

CENTERIOLE – I used a bright orange crayon. They form the mitotic spindle during cell division.

Here is a picture of my completed cell model. I must say, at first I was stressed out about what to use, but I think it came together nicely. It is amazing how all the components or organelles inside the cell work together. The cell is the smallest unit that displays the properties of life.

Unfortunately, I did not get to include the inside of the nucleus, but I did take a picture of what I made. It is a piece of green Styrofoam with the middle cut out. I added water and lots of string to indicate the CHROMATIN; which are the strands of DNA when they are condensed and when they package themselves they are chromosomes.
supplies used for my mitosis or cell division model. Orange fuzzy ball for the nucleolus, straws , glue, large and small shells for the the cell and centromeres, the decorative things on the straws are used for the spindle fibers, paper plates and red and blue yarn for the chromosomes.
I also made a model of how mitosis works. Mitosis is cell division in which the chromosomes replicate before nuclear division, so that each of the two daughter cells receives a full set of chromosomes. There are four phases of mitosis. The picture of the chromatin shows the interphase of mitosis. The four stages are……. I also included the early prophase which is when the centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelop is fragmented.

Early Prophase- the picture shows in the shell the nucleolus disappeared, chromatin condensed.

1. PROPHASE – the chromatin condenses and becomes chromosomes. The condensed duplicate strand of DNA, or sister chromatids, remain joined together with the chromosome at the point call the centromere. Cells contain a pair the centromeres. The centromere forms the mitotic spindle during cell division. They divide and the daughter cells move to opposite ends of the cell.

In this picture I am showing the spindle fibers, and in the center of the yarn, the shells, are the centromeres.

2. METAPHASE- The nuclear membrane disappears. The 46 chromosomes each consisting of a pair of sister chromatin's align themselves at the equator of the cell. Each chromosome becomes attached to the spindle by several spindle fibers that extend from the centeriole to the centromere of the chromosomes.

In this picture you can see that for the Metahase all the chromosomes lined up at the equator.

3. ANAPHASE – The centromeres split converting each pair of sister chromatin's into two identical chromosomes, which separate and move towards opposite poles of the spindle. At the end of this phase, an identical set of 46 chromosomes is present in each of the poles, for a total of 92 chromosomes.

In this picture it shows the chromatin's part and become daughter cells.

4. TELOPHASE – The cytoplasm divides through formation and gradual tightening of the actin contractile ring at the midline of the cell. Form two separate daughter cell each with a full set of chromosomes. Spindles fibers disassemble, chromosomes uncoil to chromatin and the nuclear membrane reforms in each new cell.

Daughter cells are formed.

supplies used for DNA protein synthesis
I used clay for my tRNA, pipe cleaners for base pairing the helix of DNA and a poster board to put it on.

The pipe cleaners where not easy to put together, but I managed. In this photo you can see the DNA helix which is starting to unravel to make a mRNA. Also in this picture is the tRNA which translates amino acids to make proteins. I will go into further detail. First here is a better pic of my helix of DNA...................................................................................

In this picture I actually wrote that this is a DNA helix with base pairing. The different color pipe cleaners represent the bases These are the bases in DNA.........

C=Cytosine

G=Guanine

A=Adenine

T=Thymine

Transcription is what happens first. A strand of DNA is used as a template by the enzyme RNA polymerase to synthesis the mRNA (messenger RNA) which in turn leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm. The coding mRNA sequence can be described as a unit of 3 nucleotides called CODONS, which cause the insertion of a particular amino acid into a protein or termination of translation. Next is TRANSLATION. While the mRNA is in the cytoplasm the ribosomes, which contains the rRNA (ribosomal RNA) binds to it at the start codon, AUG, that is recognized only by the imitator tRNA (transferRNA). Amino acids are linked to the tRNA and bind to the appropriate codon in mRNA by forming complementary base pairing with the tRNA anticodon. In my picture of the model of tRNA and the ribosomes you can see that the ribosomes has two binding sites where codons bind to anticodons. The top of the ribosome is where codons bind to anticodons and the middle where the letters are is a tRNA amino acid is approaching.

The ribosome moves from codon to condon along the mRNA. Amino acids are added one by one translated into polypeptidic sequences dictated by DNA and represented by RNA. At the end a release factor binds to the stop codon terminating translation and releasing the complete polypeptide from the ribosome. RNA has one different base then DNA, which is urasil. Urasil replaces thymine.

I tried to make my explanation short and sweet by not going into much detail. Its hard to believe that all this is happening in our bodies while we are walking around, sleeping, or doing this report!!

MY COMPENDIUM - UNIT I THE CELL

2008-09-03T12:53:00.000-07:00

MY COMPENDIUM
UNIT I - THE CELL

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Characteristics of Life
Molecular levels, acids & bases
Water
Cells structure and function
Cell organelles and metabolism
Tissues, cellular junctions & Organ systems

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

Life is an organized hierarchically and evolution is key. With evolution the first evidence was cellular life. It was a prokaryotic cell which scientists believed manifested into a eukaryotic cell. Humans have eukaryotic cells and bacteria have prokaryotic cells. All living things (organisms) share the characteristics of life. What I mean by that is we have the same internal functions in order to survive. Internally, we have a well organized system. The biological chart below shows the organization within us. Courteous of my professor Larry Frolich. Due to the pic being a little blurry I have explained what you are seeing on that chart. I will elaborate on some of these in my molecular levels section.

ATOMS – these are the smallest unit of an element composed of electron, protons and neutrons.

MOLECULES – is the union of two or more atoms.

CELL – the structural and functional unit of all living things.

TISSUE – a group of cells with a common structure and function

ORGAN – composed of tissues functioning together for a specific task

ORGAN SYSTEM – composed of several organs working together

ORGANISM – an individual, complex individuals contains organ systems

POPULATION – organisms of the same species in a particular area

COMMUNITY – interacting populations in a particular area

ECOSYSTEM – a community plus the physical environment

BIOSPHERE- regions of the earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms.

As you can see, it is not as complex as it seems. When you break down it makes sense. In order to survive and evolve there are six main components we all need :

ENERGY – eating food to survive. Food is broken down in the body and produces energy.
REPRODUCTION – creating a copy of yourself (offspring). This ensures extinction. This is done by genes which express a detailed copy of cells.
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT – we grow and with that cells multiple. Development also includes repairs to cell if an injury occurs.
HOMEOSTATIC – is the internal environment of a living organism. All organ systems have a function in homeostasis EXAMPLE: digestive system; helps us absorb nutrients we need to survive.
STIMULI – EXAMPLE: hunger pains—“we eat” cold—“put a coat on,” Homeostasis would be impossible without stimuli. They work side by side as my example indicates
EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY – evolution is the process by which a species changes through time. Every organism is a new generation of OLD.

I would also like to point out that humans are related to animals. All organisms are placed in a classification which is called taxonomy. Carolus Linneus
Created these classifications. 1700's - Carols Linnaeus - Swedish Biologist Linnaeus Taxonomy"
· established a simple system for classifying and naming organisms
· Based on structural similarities of organism
· Binomial Nomenclature - 2 name naming system - still in use today.
· Created a system of groups called TAXA or TAXON
· Each Taxon is a category into which related organisms are placed
Approximately 2.5 million kinds of organisms identified

This is a sample of what the taxonomy looks like for humans…..

DOMAINS: Eurkarya
KINGDOM: Animalia
PHYLUM: Chordata (we have spinal cord)
CLASS: Mammalia
ORDER: Primates
FAMILY: Hominoidea (apes & humans), no tails
GENUS: Homo
SPECIES: Sapiens (homosapiens)

There are 2 other domains. Arachaea & Bacteria. Arachaea acts like bacteria. These are both prokaryotic and humans are eukaryotic.This just means that our cells are built differently. The prokaryotic are very small, no nuclei, no organelles and their cell wall is composed of
peptidoglycan, actually only bacteria has the peptidoglycan (made of peptide and glycogen- sugar). The eukaryotic cell is very well organized in that it has organelles hard at work inside, has a nuclei, plasma membrane, and are larger the prokaryotic.

MOLECULAR LEVEL

The molecular level is a lot of chemistry that is going on in our bodies, which people are unaware. Humans, along with other organisms, are an incredible piece of, well, machinery. We start out with atoms which I explained as being the smallest unit of an element composed of electrons that are negatively charged, protons that are positively charged and neutrons which have no charge, making them neutral. The electron, neutron, and protons are subunits of the atom. When the atom joins with others they become molecules of LIFE. Some atoms that join together are the same, but if they are different they are called a compound ie., hydrogen and oxygen = water. There are 2 bonds that hold atoms together.

COVALENT BOND – this is sharing of electrons. It is a very strong bond.
IONIC BOND – is a chemical bond when ions are attracted to one another by opposite charges. Ie., cation – positive ion and anion
Negatively charged ion

A great example of an ionic bond is table salt. When salt is placed in water, what does it do? It dissolves. That’s where the cation ion
and anion ion come together. There is also hydrogen bonds. These bonds are extremely weak and are easily broken. A great example
of this is H & O2= WATER. There are 4 very important molecules in life.

PROTEINS – plays a crucial role in all biological processes. Main structural components of a cell. All chemical reactions in the body are catalyzed by enzymes all of which are proteins. They are made up of a monomer call amino acids. Structure of protein organization. They actually fold by steps. First are the primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and lastly quaternary structure. All made of polypeptide chains.
CARBOHYDRATES – 3 types; monosaccharide which are simple sugars mono= one. Disaccharides (di=2) which are sugars formed by linking 2 monosaccharide molecules together through a covalent bond ie., table sugar, lactose. Polysaccharides (poly=many) carbohydrate molecules bond together and form a long chain that contains many saccharides units ie., glycogen, starch, cellulose.
FATS OR LIPIDS – these are insoluble in water. There are 2 components of lipids. Fatty acids and alcohol.
NUCLEIC ACIDS- Two types; DNA and RNA. Are responsible for storing and using genetic information in living cells and passing it on to future generations. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) contains organic nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.

ACIDS & BASES

Acids and bases refer to a pH scale. Acids, which you probably know are in a lot of stuff we consume like, tomatoes, juices, and sauces.
Bases are also in a lot stuff we consume like; egg whites, milk, and even human blood (hope no one consumes that)! Substances like hydrochloric acid donate hydrogen ions to a solution making it acidic. Substances with sodium hydroxide accept hydrogen ions or contain hydroxyl ions and are very basic or alkaline. Scientists use the pH scale which ranges from 0 – 14 to indicate acid or alkaline. Acid is 0 – 6 and alkaline is 7.5 to 14. With pure water the number of hydrogen ions is the same as the of hydroxyl ions so water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. Ahhhhh, WATER, which bring me to my next topic.

WATER

Water is the universal solvent!! Water molecules are cohesive because of their polarity and hydrogen bonds. Water is also the most abundant molecule in living organisms. As I said above, water is connected by hydrogen bonds. The electrons (negative charge) are closer to the oxygen
atom, the oxygen atom becomes slightly negative and the hydrogen are slightly positive. This makes water a polar molecule. Water plays such a key role in our body. One of it great roles is the way it interacts with the human cell. The cell being selectively permeable lets water easily permeate the membrane. There are different ways water can get through. One is diffusion, in which it involves the movement of ions or molecules from high concentration to low concentration until the sides are equal. Secondly is osmosis which involves the flow of water across the cell membrane. These two are pretty much identical. The concentration gradient exists when the amount of a solute found in one region is greater then the amount of the solute in another. Things that influence the rate of diffusion/osmosis is the particle size, temperature of the system, solvent density. The stepper the concentration gradient and smaller the particle size the faster the rate of diffusion. The cell membrane is a great example when it comes to the next 3 terms because of the intercellular fluid is within the cell and the ECF =extracellular fluid is outside the cell. When the ECF has a lower osmotic pressure then the ICF the extracelluar fluid is said to be HYPOTONIC and water will flow into the cell causing the cell to swell and
possibly burst. When the cell has low osmotic pressure, water flows out of the cell and the cell will shrivel up making it HYPERTONIC. If the fluids have identical osmotic pressure it is said to be ISOTONIC. There are also to important processes that occur with water. Hydrolysis which is splitting of a compound by the addition of water. Dehydration is another process that occurs and it results from a covalent bond with the accompanying loss of a water molecule.

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The cell functions in many different ways for our survival. I have composed a list of these functions.

obtains food (nutrients) and oxygen from the environment surrounding the cell
performs chemical reactions that use the nutrients and oxygen to provide energy for the cell. Ie., food + O2 + H2O + energy
eliminating CO2 and other wastes produced during the chemical reactions
synthesizes proteins and other components needed for cell structure, growth and carrying out a cell function
controlling the exchange of materials between the cell and its surrounding environment
moving material from one part of the cell to another in carrying out cell activities, some move entirely.
being sensitive and responsive to change in surrounding environment
reproducing

The cells structure is much more complicated. It has several organelles that function together. This is a list of the structures of the cell and a brief description of how they function.

CELL MEMBRANE – consists of mostly lipids, fats, and proteins. This membrane is selectively permeable, meaning some particles are easily let in and others require energy to pass through. Keeps Intracellular fluid within the cells form mingling with Extracellular fluid outside of the cells. Encloses each cell.
PHOSPHLIPIDS - have a polar (charged) head containing a negatively charged phosphate group and 2 nonpolar (electrically neutral) fatty acid tails. Structure of this is critical of membrane amipathic nature, meaning it contains both polar and nonpolar domains. The polar ends are Hydrophilic because it can interact with water molecules, which are also polar. The nonpolar end is Hydrophobic and will not mix with water. The 2 sided molecule self assemble into a lipid bilayer!
NUCLEUS – the largest single organized cell component. Houses the cells genetic material DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) directs protein synthesis, serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication.
CYTOPLASM – is the portion of the cell interior not occupied by the nucleus. Contains organelles (little organs) dispersed with the cytosol
ORGANELLES – each organelle is a separate compartment within the cell that is enclosed by a membrane similar to the plasma membrane. They are like intercellular specialty shops, each carrying out specific set of chemicals for carrying out particular cell function.
CYTOSOL - is the extension of the cytoplasm. Has an elaborate protein network called a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton gives the cell shape, provides internal organization and regulates movement. It contains three elements; microtubules, (movement of cell components), microfilaments; (movement of the cell or changes in cell shape) and intermediate filaments; (strictly structural, uses keratin).
CILIA AND FLAGELLA – these produce movement. Cilia is (in the respiratory tract, moves an egg along the oviduct) sweep unwanted particles trapped in mucous back up the throat, which helps clean out the lungs. Flagella are a whip-like movement with long tails a good example of flagella is male sperm. The flagella is the tail and help the sperm swim. Both of these are grown from basal bodies.

LIST OF ORGANELLES AND BRIEF FUNCTION

RIBOSOMES – carries out protein synthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – primarily a protein and lipid manufacturing factory
SMOOTH ER – lipid and steroid metabolism. Portions of the smooth ER “bud off” after receiving synthesized proteins and lipids the pinched off forming transport vesicles. Meshwork of tiny interconnected tubules.
ROUGH ER - ribosome’s attached rRNA (ribosomal RNA) flattened sacs is part of protein synthesis making vesicles
GOLGI COMPLEX - stacked flattened membrane enclosed sacs. Processes raw material into finished products, pinched into vesicles with final product – docking markers. Each vesicle can doc and unload only at the appropriate docking marker acceptor.
LYOSOMES – performed in the golgi complex. Contains hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze (break down) hydrolysis reactions. Uses endocytosis (released particles within the cell). There are three types of endocytosis. Pinocytosis (cell drinking) brings in a droplet of ECF. Receptor-mediated endocytosis; highly selective process that enables cells to import specific large molecules. (traps proteins inside the cell, ie., cholesterol. Phagocytosis (cell eating) engulfs large substances, forming an intercellular vacuole.
MITOCHONDRIA - energy producing organelle. They extract energy from the nutrients in food and transform it into a useable form for cell activities. Most importantly, generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate- our energy). Has 2 parts cristae – inner membrane that forms series of shelves. Also increases the surface area for electron transport chain (which occurs in metabolism and the matrix which consists of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes.
I would like to explain how the process of cellular respiration works. Metabolism is the total chemical reactions that occur in a cell. It starts with glycolysis, (happens in the cytoplasm) which is the break down of glucose and turns into pyruvate acid or it can produce fermentation in which lactate is produced Lactate is what makes that burning sensation when you are working out. You feel a burn. This step does not require oxygen, making it anaerobic. Next step is the Krebs cycle (happens in the matrix of the mitochondria), which requires oxygen (aerobic), and produces ATP at the end of its cycle, 2 to be exact. Third step is the Electron transport chain, (happen in the cristae of the mitochondria) which also requires oxygen and produces the most ATP= 32. These steps are highly organized. They use electrons, coenzymes NAD, (nictinamide adenine dinucleotide), release of carbon dioxide. These steps are really hard to put into works, but I understand completely how they work. I could go on forever. There would be not end to this compendium.

HOW PARTICLES OR PROTEINS PASS THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

I explained early how diffusion and osmosis worked, but in order for proteins to pass over there is a special transport because they are so large.
Active transport the moves from low concentration to high concentration, which is opposite of osmosis. Active transport requires a protein carrier and use of cellular energy obtained from the breakdown of ATP. Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP it uses a carrier to transport downhill.
The sodium/potassium pump is active transport pump critically important in the ability of nerve and muscle cells to generate electrical signals essential to their functioning. 3 Na+ (sodium) out of the cell, 2 K (potassium) pumped into the cell.

TISSUES, CELLULAR JUNCTIONS & ORGAN SYSTEMS

There are four main tissue types. Tissues are composed of specialized cells of the same type to perform a common function in the body.

MUSCLE TISSUE - consists of cells specialized for contracting and generating force. Three types. Skeletal muscle; moves skeleton. Cardiac muscle; pumps blood. Smooth muscle; encloses and controls movement of contents through hollow tubes and organs.
NERVOUS TISSUE – consists of cells (neurons) specialized for initiating and transmitting electrical impulses. These are found in the brain, spinal cord, and external environment.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE - cells specialized for exchanging material between the cell and its environment. Any substance that crosses the body proper must cross an epithelial barrier. Our bodies’ organs are covered with epithelial tissue. It is organized into 2 type’s f structures. Epithelial sheets; serves as boundary, ie., GI tract, lungs. Secretory glands; exocrine gland; secretes through ducts to outside of the body or into a cavity that opens to the outside. Endocrine gland; lacks ducts and release their secretory products known as hormones in the blood stream, ie pancreas secretes insulin. There are also 3 types of epithelial tissues. Squamous epithelium its shape and arrangement helps permit exchanges of substances, ie air sac of lungs and walls of blood vessels. Cuboidal epithelium, single layer. Found in glands and contain microvilli that help increase the surface area for absorption. Columnar epithelium, lines the widepipe, also, they have cilia which help trap mucous and send it back to the throat to get rid of the debris.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE – connects, supports, and anchors. Includes diverse structures as the loose connective tissue attaches epithelial tissues to underlying structures; tendons. Except for blood, the cells within connective tissue produce specific structural molecules that release into the extracellular spaces between cells. One molecule is the rubber band like protein called ELASTIN- this facilitates the stretching and recoiling of structures such as lungs.

CELLUALR JUNCTIONS

These junctions help tissue perform its particular function. There are 3 types

DESMOSOMES – (cells being pushed together) “spot rivets” that anchor together to closely adjacent but nontouching cells. Found in tissues; skin, heart and uterus. There are 2 components. A pair of dense, button like cytoplasmic thickening known as plaque and strong filaments that extends across the space between the 2 cells and attach to the plaque on both sides
TIGHT JUNCTIONS- adjacent cells firmly bind with each other to seal off passageways between 2 cells
GAP JUNCTIONS – (communicating junctions) As the name implies a gap exists between adjacent cells which are linked by small connecting tunnels formed by connexons. They are made up of 6 protein subunits. Most abundant in cardiac muscle.

ORGAN SYSTEMS

All these system work together to promote homeostasis!! Negative feedback is a one of the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable, like blood glucose level close to a set point. Example…when body temp rises the response is to seat, evaporating cooling. Vasodilatation vessels on the surface of the skin increase in diameter – dissipates heat; increases fluid, thirst, less urination – remove clothing
Positive feedback – works against homeostasis. There is no set point and the body is not regulated. It is useful in the birthing process as the cervix dilates it produces oxitocin and with further dilation the cervix producing more oxitocin.
There are 11 organ systems. Here is a pic for you to view. I will give a brief description of each.

NERVOUS SYSTEM - Acts through electrical signals to control rapid responses of the body.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM – Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissue cell and transports wastes away from cells.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – Obtains nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the external environment and transfers them into the plasma and eliminates undigested food residue to the external environment.
MUSCULAR/SKELETAL SYSTEM – Supports and protects body parts and allow body movement Heat-generating muscle contractions are important in temperature regulation.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM – Serves as a protective barrier the external environment and the remainder of the body; the sweat glands and adjustments in skin blood flow are important in temperature regulation
IMMUNE SYSTEM – Defends against foreign invaders and cancer cells; pave the way for tissue repair
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – Obtains oxygen from and eliminates carbon dioxide to the external environment, helps regulate pH by adjusting the rate of removal of acid-forming carbon dioxide.
URINARY SYSTEM – Important in regulating the volume, electrolytes composition, and pH of the internal environment. Removes wastes and excess water, salt, acid, and other electrolytes form the plasma and eliminates then in the urine.
REPORDUCTIVE SYSTEM – This doesn’t really help with homeostasis, but is important for perpetuation of out species.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – Acts by means of hormones secreted into the blood stream to regulate processes that require duration rather then speed i.e., metabolic activities, water and electrolyte balance.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM – Helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins. Defends against disease.

Conclusion: I am sure that I may not have touched on some points, but isn’t that what a compendium is. I tried to condense a lot of information into
my compendium that I thought was important. The body is a complex system, but once you understand it; it is AMAZING!!!! I tried to include pictures from the world wide web as best I could. I feel that pictures help visualize what is being explained. These are the wesites where I

copied some pictures.......

www.fotosearch.com/photos-images/atoms.html

http://www.wikipedia.com/

www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e22/22.htm

Lab Microscope

2008-08-28T11:52:00.000-07:00

USING A MICROSCOPE

I have worked with compound microscopes in my physiology and microbiology classes and they are a great tool in the science world!! I will start by explaining the mechanical parts of the compound microscope. First, is the ocular lens. These are similar to looking through binoculars because they both have magnification. To turn the microscope on there is an on/off switch that allows the light to come in. You must also turn the rheostat to 10 which is next to the on/off switch at the base of the microscope. Any other light adjustment will be done by the iris diaphragm. The ocular lens on the microscope has a magnification 0f 10x, so if have a specimen on the stage of the microscope (where slides go) and looked through the ocular lens it would be magnified ten times. You must look through the ocular lens to adjust the viewing of a specimen. To do this, place your fingers around the ocular lens's, while looking through them, twist to bring the double circle into one. You should not see two circles; otherwise viewing your specimen could b very difficult. Secondly, is the objective lens located on the nose piece, below the ocular lens. The ocular housing changes the objective lens, in which there are four. The ocular housing can be turned and brought over the slide on the stage of the microscope. The four lens consist of a scanning lens with 4x magnification, low power 10x, high power 45x, and oil immersion 100x. To find out your TOTAL magnification, you must multiple the ocular lens (10x) times your objective lens. EXAMPLE: 10x (x) 4x = 40x total magnification. The microscope contains a stage for a specimen, which is flat and located right under your objective lens. It has a spring loaded clip which you pull to place your slide, then let go when it is securely in place. After placing a specimen on your stage you need to bring it into focus using two knobs. One knob is the coarse focus knob located on the left side of the microscope (it is larger then the fine focus knob). The coarse is used to move the objective lens towards and away from the specimen. It moves the stage rapidly. You can be looking through the microscope while using the coarse focus. The next knob is the fine focus which is directly next the coarse focus knob. The fine focus knob is used to bring the specimen into a crystal clear image. You must be looking through the ocular lens to bring the specimen into optimum view. The coarse focus must be used before using the fine focus because it brings the specimen closer to the objective lens you are using. Along with focus knobs there are the XY control knobs that bring your specimen into the center of for viewing. You must be looking through the microscope to accomplish this. To bring light onto the specimen you will need to adjust the iris diaphragm which is located under the stage. You should be looking through the ocular lens while turning the lever of the iris diaphragm back and forth. It brings the light through the condenser. These are the important mechanical devices on the compound microscope.

The microscope is a very important tool in the scientific world. It allows scientists to view specimens that they cannot see with the naked eye.

While viewing the simulator, I choose the cheek cell as the slide I wanted to view. What you are seeing is a view through the microscope of a cheek cell and the mechanical devices which I described above.

HISTORY OF A MICROSCOPE

The microscope was founded by Hans & Zacharias Janssen who were Dutch eye glass makers in 1595. The first microscope they made was just a tube with lens at each end and their magnification was 3x to 9x. Robert Hooke improved the compound microscope with his abilities as an engineer in 1660’s. He designed (not built) the mechanical devices for the microscope. Then there was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek who was a brilliant man with many talents. He made microscopes with one lens. He was the first person to build a microscope. He described protozoans, cheek cells, and proved the theory of blood circulation. This is a picture of Leeuwenhoek first microscope.

His microscope was very hard to use because it was so small.

Microscopes have many uses. They are obviously used in laboratories, hospitals, research center, and many, many, more facilities. As I said before the importance of a microscope is the fact that scientist can see specimens that they can’t see with the naked eye. The microscope also helps scientist identify new bacteria’s. There are millions and millions of bacteria that we haven’t even identified yet, but little by little they are being worked on. There are different kinds of microscopes. As I talked about above, the compound microscope is used mainly for glass slides and uses light. It is also two dimensional. This is the most used microscope.
Another microscope is the dissection microscope, which as the name applies, is used to view small animals; such as frogs. This microscope, unlike the compound microscope, when viewing a specimen it isn’t upside down. It is looking right back at you. It only has one objective lens so viewing is limited.
The scanning electron microscope uses electron illumination, instead of light. These microscopes scan the surface of a specimen. Finally, the transmission electron microscope also uses electron illumination and gives a 2-D view of a specimen. This microscope actually slices through a specimen for viewing.

Conclusion: The microscope is an amazing piece of equipment and has been around a very long time!!

ß----Scanning electron microscope